Anna Feng
Integrative Seminar 2
5/8/15
Typefaces: More than a Tool to Transmit Texts
Typography constantly surrounds individuals everyday whether they realize it or
not. In
Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man
, Marshall McLuhan proposes that
"the medium is the message," suggesting that medium itself influences how the
message it carries is perceived by the audience.1 This idea thus proposes that
typefaces act as more than just a tool to transmit texts: these visual characters have
the ability to impose different moods and attitudes on the information displayed as
much as voice and tone can affect a person’s speech. An understanding of the
construction of the typeface, its historical and cultural context, and its letterforms all
combine to determine the selection. In Nazi Germany appointed officials recognized
the importance of using Fraktur as the official German font to convey their identity,
while Barack Obama’s 2008 presidential campaign realized the hidden messages
embedded in Gotham to reinforce his messages. Even Helvetica, a font that was
created in an attempt to be neutral, carries individual ideals because of its usage
throughout history. Typefaces such as Fraktur, Helvetica, and Gotham communicate
ideas that exist interdependently from the content they carry through the political and
cultural ideologies they inhabit.
1
Marshall McLuhan,
Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man
The term “typeface” originates from movable type, in which fifteenth century
printers had to physically hand-set type with different relief images of letters, numbers,
and symbols on a surface known as “the face” 2 (Fig. 1). In
Unjustified Texts:
Perspectives on Typography
, Robin Kinross best explains the term “typeface” by
dividing it up into two parts: “type” and “face.” He states that “type” refers to a small
metal or wooden rectangular block which contains a raised letter or figure on its upper
end for use in printing. Kinross then describes “face” as a set of one specific style of
type.3 A typeface, therefore, classifies a set of printable and displayable text that share
common design features, such as width, height, ornamentation, and condensation.4
Blackletter is a script that was commonly used throughout Western Europe in
manuscript books and documents from the 12th to 17th century (Fig. 2). In fact the first
major book printed with movable type in Europe - the Gutenberg Bible - was
reproduced using blackletter type styles.5 In the early 20th century, however,
blackletter fell out of favor among European designers and publishers, and was
eventually replaced by more legible Roman typefaces.6 Although blackletter was no
longer used in most European countries, a notable variation of the typeface known as
Fraktur persisted within German-speaking countries. In 1933 Adolf Hitler declared
Fraktur to be “volk,” or the people’s font, when the Nazi party seized political power in
2
Simon Garfield,
Just My Type: A Book About Fonts
(New York: Penguin, 2011)
Robin Kinross,
Unjustified Texts: Perspectives on Typography
(London: Hyphen Press, 2002)
4
Ellen Lupton,
Thinking with Type
(New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2010)
5
Eric Gill,
An Essay on Typography
(New Hampshire: David R. Godine, 1988)
6
"The Blackletter Typeface: A Long and Colored History," last modified November 7, 2009,
http://www.sitepoint.com/the-blackletter-typeface-a-long-and-colored-history/.
3
Germany.7 Soon after, the Nazis implemented a law that required all government
publications to be printed in Fraktur. They then furthered this policy by overhauling
children's textbooks and curricula to stress this “new national style” that they believed
conveyed “a strictly German national identity.”8
Hitler was shrewd in choosing Fraktur as “the [German] people’s font” in that the
typeface was closely associated with German cultural heritage; the typeface was used
by all patriotic Germans regardless of their political views. Citizens of Germany viewed
Fraktur “to be an ever-strong representation of their artistic, natural, organic and craft
heritage” in the advent of modern sans-serif type they deemed mechanical and
artificial.9 However, although Fraktur was highly regarded as an intricate part of
German nationalism, it eventually became regarded as “the Nazi typeface” because of
the strong ties it shared with the infamous political group led by Adolf Hitler. The Nazis
turned Fraktur into a “dangerous nationalist form of lettering” due to their ability to
successfully lead powerful propaganda campaigns through a strong and consistent
blend of design and typography.10 The letterforms of Fraktur also further evoke
menacing impressions among its audience through the use of sharp and angular lines
rather than round and smooth curves.
Because the Nazis were well aware of the importance of mass media in order to
sway popular opinion, there was an officially sanctioned effort to control most aspects
7
Stephen J. Eskilson,
Graphic Design: A New History
(New Haven: Yale University Press, 2007), 285.
Ibid.
9
“Blackletter,” http://retinart.net/typography/blackletter/
10
Stephen J. Eskilson,
Graphic Design: A New History
(New Haven: Yale University Press, 2007), 285.
8
of German visual culture.11 Graphic designers and typographers hired under the Nazi
regime were instructed to reject modern styles that did not match their ideological
beliefs.12 As a result of "cleansing" Germany of what they considered to be degenerate
art, the Nazis shut down one of the most progressive art schools of the time - the
Bauhaus. The Bauhaus style aimed to eliminate the distinction between form and
function, and thus resolved to reform difficult-to-read typeface design by developing
clear and legible typefaces.13 As a result Bauhaus type designers sought to create
geometric and functional typefaces, such as Futura and Universal, by combining
straight lines with circles (Fig. 3) and (Fig. 4). In addition to these typefaces is the
typeface featured in the poster
Tanzfestspiele (Dance Festival)
by Max Burchartz (Fig.
5). It supports the Bauhaus’ ideals by creating a clear and modern atmosphere, devoid
of serifs and unnecessary ornamentations. While the typeface is simple, it also
manages to depict movement through the diagonal instrokes (where one starts writing
the letter) in the letter ‘e.’ The sense of movement among the letterforms, which is also
supported by the arched pathway the words sit on, represents the forward thinking
embedded deeply in Bauhaus values. Experienced graphic designers today use
sans-serif typefaces when they try to represent and enhance modern texts because of
the historical association of sans-serif typefaces with the Bauhaus and its progressive
and contemporary ideals.
11
Stephen J. Eskilson,
Graphic Design: A New History
(New Haven: Yale University Press, 2007), 285.
Ibid.
13
J. Abbott Miller and Ellen Lupton,
A Natural History of Typography
. (New Jersey: New Jersey City
Museum, 1992)
12
In 2008 Barack Obama's presidential campaign featured the Gotham typeface
created by Hoefler & Co to communicate his campaign’s message (Fig. 6). Unlike most
sans serif typefaces, Gotham is an American typeface - not German, Swiss, nor
French.14 The letterforms of Gotham are inspired by the architectural signage
commonly seen throughout New York City on office doorways and street signs
particularly at the Port Authority Bus Terminal (Fig. 7).15 The "no-nonsense lettering of
the American vernacular" symbolizes the characteristics and qualities of their makers
and roots back to the humble beginnings of early American proprietors.16 By
influencing Gotham’s form and proportions, such old handmade letterings allow the
typeface to evoke a sense of familiarity among its audience. Gotham’s attributes make
it “a hard-working typeface for the ages” and is therefore ideal for Obama to use since
he largely appeals to working middle-class families.17
Gotham was also displayed on the iconic campaign poster that features the
word “HOPE” in large all-caps letters under a blue-and-red portrait of Obama (Fig. 8).
The physical letterforms of the typeface reinforce Obama’s goal to instill hope in
Americans because they are visually bold and strong. Gotham’s geometric structure
further promotes trust among readers because of the natural human tendency to favor
symmetry. Meanwhile its lack of serifs also makes the typeface more modern and
synonymous with Obama’s progressive democratic policies. In addition to being used
14
"Gotham," http://www.typography.com/fonts/gotham/overview/
Simon Garfield,
Just My Type: A Book About Fonts
(New York: Penguin, 2011)
16
"Gotham," http://www.typography.com/fonts/gotham/overview/
17
Simon Garfield,
Just My Type: A Book About Fonts
(New York: Penguin, 2010)
15
on presidential campaigns for Obama, Gotham was chosen as the typeface to
commemorate those who lost their lives on September 11, 2011 on the cornerstone for
the Freedom Tower (Fig 9). The inscription memorializes the victims of 9/11 and gives
tribute to the “enduring spirit of freedom” which ties together Gotham’s symbolization
of hope, resilience, and new beginnings.18
In 1957, Max Miedinger and Eduard Hoffmann attempted to create a “neutral”
typeface that “had no intrinsic meaning in its form” when they created the typeface
Helvetica (Fig. 10).19 In
Helvetica (film)
, graphic designer Wim Crouvel states that many
designers believed Helvetica to be a “real step from the 19th century typeface. [They]
were impressed by that because it was more neutral, and neutralism was a word that
[they] loved.” He further explains that meaning should be in the context of the text and
not in the typeface itself.20 In an interview organized by Emigre Typefoundry in 2003,
however, a panel of designers seem to disagree with Crouvel in that no typeface can
ever actually be neutral, and that “the objectivity of Helvetica is a myth.”21 They
propose the idea that Helvetica is one of the most widely used typefaces today only
because Helvetica has been falsely regarded as neutral since its creation.22
18
David Dunlap, "A 9/11 Cornerstone, Chiseled With a New York Accent,”
New York Times
, July 8, 2004,
http://www.nytimes.com/2004/07/08/nyregion/08blocks.html.
19
Lars Muller,
Helvetica: Homage to a Typeface
(New York: Springer Science & Business Media, 2002)
20
Gary Hustwit, Shelby Siegel, and Luke Geissbuhler,
Helvetica A Documentary Film
, (2007; Plexifilm.)
21
Rudy Vanderlans,
If We're Standing on the Shoulders of Giants, what are We Reaching For?
(New York:
Emigre, 2003)
22
Ibid.
What Crouvel fails to realize is that although Helvetica was made to be “neutral”
and does not carry similar historical associations to those of Fraktur, the typeface
certainly carries certain connotations today. Helvetica has frequently been used within
contemporary visual culture, particularly in the world of corporate communications (Fig.
11). Because of its uniform weight and straight horizontal/vertical terminations,
Helvetica looks consistent, direct, and precise. In the context of corporate identity and
branding, this makes Helvetica favorable because precision implies dependability and
consistency. Many famous brands such as BMW, Sears, Nestle, and Target base their
current logotypes on Helvetica’s letterforms. (fig. In fact a well-known clothing
manufacturer, American Apparel, chose to use the typeface for their own brand identity
sarcastically to “poke fun at corporate culture in America” (Fig. 12).23
Typography can act as more than just a tool in the role of communication.
Typefaces can be considered as individual message bearers and inhibit different
connotations based on their historical and cultural contexts. For example Fraktur is
considered a menacing typeface because the Nazis used Fraktur as a perfect
representation of their heritage in the 1930s. What once was a reflection of the
“personality of the pre-industrial folk-communities of Germany” turned into a strong
visual association with the Nazi party.24 The Bauhaus saw typography in a completely
different way by stressing the importance of function as well as form. Their usage of
23
Cameron Chapman, "The Simplicity of Helvetica,"
Web Designer Depot
, January 20, 2010,
http://www.webdesignerdepot.com/2010/01/the-simplicity-of-helvetica/
24
“Blackletter,” http://retinart.net/typography/blackletter/
geometric forms and sans-serifs represented their belief that typography should be
clear in its most emphatic form. While Max Miedinger and Eduard Hoffmann tried to
create a typeface that had no meaning in its form, the usage of Helvetica by companies
inadvertently created corporate connotations to it. Over time the usage of all typefaces
embody different historical and cultural ideologies that influence the way they are
perceived by the audience.
Appendix
Researching about typography in seminar stressed the importance of finding the
right typeface for my logotype. In the same way someone’s appearance and
personality affects impressions on people, the way in which a company presents itself
also creates an image in a consumer’s mind. In a nutshell, corporate identity is how a
company is presented to and perceived by the public. Many components contribute to
this visual statement—from its logo, to its color palette, to its typography. Therefore
choosing Josefin Sans as the typeface reinforced the theme and message in my
corporate identity because it is geometric and sans-serif. The letterforms imply
modernity while the tracking between the letters gives the logotype breathing space.
Typography is considered an invisible art because as Jim Williams once said, “if
a typographer has done a good job and produced a page that flows and is ‘easy on the
eye’, he has done his job and the reader doesn’t notice.” A page that has poor type
treatment, on the other hand, “would be difficult and irritating to read.” Although the
ordinary person does not care about typography, one of the reasons why companies
like Apple are doing so well is because of its consistent use of typography in its overall
corporate identity.
1. Blocks for printing 2. Blackletter script Fraktur 3. Futura typeface 4. Universal typeface 5. Max Burchartz (1887–1961),
Tanzfestspiele (Dance Festival)
, 1928, photolitograph,
35 1/2 x 33 1/4" (90.2 x 84.5 cm). The Museum of Modern Art, New York.
6. Gotham typeface created by Hoefler & Co
7. Signage at Port Authority Bus Terminal that influenced Gotham’s letterforms 8. Obama HOPE poster 9. Gotham typeface on Freedom Tower cornerstone 10. Helvetica 11. Logos based on Helvetica’s letterforms 12. American Apparel logo Bibliography
Chapman, Cameron. “The Simplicity of Helvetica."
Web Designer Depot
, January 20,
2010. http://www.webdesignerdepot.com/2010/01/the-simplicity-of-helvetica/.
Dunlap, David. "A 9/11 Cornerstone, Chiseled With a New York Accent."
New York
Times
, July 8, 2004.
http://www.nytimes.com/2004/07/08/nyregion/08blocks.html
.
Eskilson, Stephen J.
Graphic Design: A New History
. New Haven: Yale University
Press, 2007.
Garfield, Simon.
Just My Type: A Book About Fonts
. New York: Penguin, 2011.
Gill, Eric.
An Essay on Typography
. New Hampshire: David R. Godine, 1988.
Hustwit, Gary, Shelby Siegel, and Luke Geissbuhler.
Helvetica A Documentary Film
.
(2007; Plexifilm.)
Kinross, Robin.
Unjustified Texts: Perspectives on Typography
. London: Hyphen Press,
2002.
Lupton, Ellen.
Thinking with Type.
New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2010.
Miller, J. Abbott, and Ellen Lupton.
A Natural History of Typography
. New Jersey: New
Jersey City Museum, 1992.
Muller, Lars.
Helvetica: Homage to a Typeface
. New York: Springer Science &
Business Media, 2002.
Retinart. “Blackletter.”
http://retinart.net/typography/blackletter/
.
Sitepoint. "The Blackletter Typeface: A Long and Colored History." Last modified
November 7, 2009.
http://www.sitepoint.com/the-blackletter-typeface-a-long-and-colored-history/
.
Typography. "Gotham."
www.typography.com/fonts/gotham/overview/
.
Vanderlans, Rudy.
If We're Standing on the Shoulders of Giants, what are We Reaching
For?
. New York: Emigre, 2003.