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Urban Planning and Management
7th Semester
2008
How to plan sustainably at the local level
- a qualitative assessment
Anna Várdai
Gilles Montjardet
Mathilde Løvenholdt Larsen
Patience Mguni
Tinna Haraldsdóttir
Title:
How to plan sustainably at the local levelA qualitative assessment
Theme for the semester:
The complex city
Project Period:
September 2008 – January 2009
Supervisor:
Daniel Galland
Printed copies:
2
Number of pages:
108
Appendix number, cd-rom:
9
Group:
UPM0703
Group members:
Abstract
______________________
Anna Várdai
______________________
Gilles Montjardet
______________________
Mathilde Løvenholdt Larsen
______________________
Patience Mguni
______________________
Tinna Haraldsdóttir
This report deals with the question whether
the sustainable urban form is achievable in the
complex city today: how can the sustainable
form be characterised and to which degree
sustainability is used in local planning in the
Danish context.
In order for deeper knowledge about the
objective, a case study approach is chosen and
a deductive and inductive reasoning are used.
The reasoning starts deductively from the
Danish National Strategy for the understanding
and switches to inductive in order to propose a
solution for the chosen case: Thor’s Bakke in
Randers. The findings are assessed through
qualitative assessment based on the group’s
own
measurements
and
definition
of
sustainability.
The findings show that the sustainable urban
form can be achieved through planning but the
degree of implementation of sustainability in
an area depends on funds and ambition from
the decision makers. Sustainability can be
measured on a local level but it is evident that
the elements of sustainability are not
implemented as such intentionally.
PREFACE
This report is written for planning students, people with a relation to the
planning education on Aalborg University and people who are interested in
the problems concerning how to implement a sustainable urban form in the
complex city. Report is made in the seventh semester, first semester of the
master program called Urban Planning and Management under the planning
department.
The semester theme is ‘The Complex City’ and started the 2nd of September
2008 and ended the 5th of January 2008.
In this report references are named according to the Harvard method.
References from the internet are stated as (abbreviation, date). Books are
stated as (last name, year of publication). Interviews are either transcribed or
summarized and are referred to as appendices which can be found on the cdrom in the last page of the report. The appendices can be read if the reader
wishes further explanation to the chapter.
Guideline for reading the report
In the introduction it is summarized what the basis is for the problem
formulation. Thereafter the chosen methods which are used in the different
stages of the making of the report are presented. Hereafter the chosen
theoretical approach will be presented which ends up in a theoretical
answering of the questions stated in the problem formulation. Then the
findings will be presented. These are observations, interviews and
documentary data from the case study; Thor’s Bakke in Randers, Denmark.
These findings will be compared to the theory and analysed in order to
answer the problem formulation with knowledge gained from the case study.
On the basis of the triangulation of knowledge between theory and practice, a
normative proposal for how the case area could be planned will be presented.
Then finally the conclusion, an answering of the problem formulation in
relation to theory, findings and solution is presented.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1: Introduction ................................................ 1
1.1. Problem analysis .......................................................................................... 1
1.1.1. Evolution of sustainability .................................................................. 1
1.2. The Danish National Strategy fo sustainable development ........................ 3
1.3. Minister’s Paper, October 2008 ................................................................... 4
1.4. Problem formulation .................................................................................... 5
CHAPTER 2: Methodology ............................................... 9
2.1. Project Design .............................................................................................. 9
2.2. Methodological Approach .......................................................................... 10
2.2.1. Deductive and Inductive reasoning ................................................. 10
2.2.2. Qualitative research methods ......................................................... 11
2.2.3. Case study ....................................................................................... 12
2.2.3.1. A typical and critical case study .......................................... 12
2.2.4. Multiple Sources of Evidence ........................................................... 13
2.2.4.1. Interviews ............................................................................ 14
2.2.4.2. Field observations ................................................................ 15
2.2.4.3. Documentation .................................................................... 15
2.3. Limitations ................................................................................................. 15
CHAPTER 3: Theoretical Framework .............................. 17
3.1. Sustainable Development and the City ..................................................... 17
3.2. The Western Approach to Sustainable Development: Ecological
Modernization ............................................................................................ 20
3.3. The Concepts and Components of Sustainable Urban Development........ 22
3.4. The Unsustainable Urban Form: urban sprawl .......................................... 27
3.5. Sustainable Urban Forms........................................................................... 29
3.5.1. Approaches towards sustainable urban form .................................. 31
3.5.1.1. Neotraditional Development................................................ 31
3.5.1.2. Urban Containment ............................................................. 31
3.5.1.3. Compact City ....................................................................... 31
3.5.1.4. New Urbanism...................................................................... 31
3.6. Measurements of Sustainable Urban Form – according to the group ....... 32
3.6.1. Physical elements ............................................................................ 32
3.6.1.1. Low energy building ............................................................ 32
3.6.1.2. Transport ............................................................................. 33
3.6.1.3. Compactness ....................................................................... 34
3.6.1.4. Density ................................................................................. 34
3.6.2. Functional elements ........................................................................ 37
3.6.2.1. Mixed land use ..................................................................... 37
3.6.2.2. Diversity ............................................................................... 39
3.6.3. Perceptive elements ........................................................................ 40
3.6.3.1. History.................................................................................. 40
3.6.3.2. Liveability............................................................................. 40
3.6.3.3. Uniqueness .......................................................................... 42
3.6.4. Environmental elements ......................................................................... 42
3.6.4.1. Green Spaces ....................................................................... 42
3.6.4.2. Recycling ............................................................................. 44
CHAPTER 4: Randers – the Case Study .......................... 47
4.1. Location
................................................................................................. 47
4.2. The history of the city ................................................................................ 48
4.3. Thor’s Bakke .............................................................................................. 50
4.3.1. Density ............................................................................................. 52
4.3.2. Mixed land use ................................................................................. 56
4.3.3. Green Spaces ................................................................................... 59
4.3.4. Liveability ......................................................................................... 64
4.4. Further findings ......................................................................................... 66
4.4.1. Economics – the power of money .................................................... 66
4.4.2. Sustainability and power relations .................................................. 66
4.4.3. The relativity of the concept of ‘Sustainable’ .................................. 67
4.5. Conclusion ................................................................................................. 67
CHAPTER 5: Proposals ................................................. 71
5.1. Design issues ............................................................................................. 71
5.1.1. Reduction of parking spaces............................................................ 71
5.1.1.1. Weak incentive for using alternative transport modes ....... 72
5.1.1.2. Traffic consequences on the city level ................................ 73
5.1.2. Low rise / high density ..................................................................... 74
5.1.2.1. Removal of the high rise building ........................................ 74
5.1.2.2. Perimeter block principle ..................................................... 74
5.2. Functional issues ....................................................................................... 76
5.2.1. A new branding for Thor’s Bakke ..................................................... 76
5.2.2. Vertical mixed uses ......................................................................... 76
5.3. Social issues............................................................................................... 78
5.3.1. Participation ..................................................................................... 78
5.3.2. Mixed type of ownership .................................................................. 79
5.4. Economic issues......................................................................................... 79
5.4.1. Energy efficiency through policy ..................................................... 80
5.4.2. Energy efficiency through subsidize ................................................ 80
5.5. Environmental issues ................................................................................. 81
5.5.1. A pond within the green space ........................................................ 82
5.5.2. Strengthening of the link between public space ............................. 83
5.5.3. Green roof ........................................................................................ 84
CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION ............................................ 89
Bibliography ...................................................................................................... 92
TABLE OF FIGURES
Figure 2-1: Project design which shows how each of the parts and chapters
are linked (Source: UPM0703, 2008) ................................................................ 10
Figure 2-2: Illustration of how deductive and inductive approaches are used
in the report. (Source: UPM0703, 2008) ........................................................... 11
Figure 2-3: Data triangulation (Source: UPM0703, 2008, adapted from
Bryman, 2004) .................................................................................................. 14
Figure 3-1: The triangle of conflicting goals for planning, and the three
associated conflicts Planners define themselves, implicitly, by where they
stand on the triangle. The elusive ideal of sustainable development leads one
to the centre. (Source: Campbell, 1996, p. 298) .............................................. 23
Figure 3-2: Major dimensions of urban sustainability (Pacione, 2005, p. 608)
.......................................................................................................................... 24
Figure 3-3: The sustainability prism illustrates the primary values of equity,
economy, ecology, and liveability (Source: Godschalk, 2004, in Berke et al,
2006 p. 40) ...................................................................................................... 25
Figure 3-4: Energy use per capital in private passenger travel versus urban
density in global cities 1990 (Source: Newman and Kentworthy, 1990). ........ 35
Figure 3-5: Designing a good street: vertical and horizontal grain zoning
(Montgomery, 1998, p. 110) ............................................................................. 39
Figure 4-1: Map of the city Randers and the location of Randers in Denmark
(Source: UPM0703, 2008) ................................................................................. 48
Figure 4-2: City centre of Randers (Source: UPM0703, 2008) ....................... 49
Figure 4-3: Population projection for the municipality of Randers(Source:
Randers Kommune, 2007b) .............................................................................. 49
Figure 4-4: Location of Thor’s Bakke in Randers (source: Google map,
UPM0703, 2008) ............................................................................................... 50
Figure 4-5: Current state of Thor´s Bakke (source: UPM0703, 29/10/2008) . 51
Figure 4-6: Site plan of Thor’s Bakke – displaying the different functions
integrated on the site (source: Arkitema, UPM0703, 2008) ............................. 52
Figure 4-7: Distribution of density in Thor’s Bakke (source: Lokalplan, 2007,
UPM0703, 2008) ............................................................................................... 53
Figure 4-8: Overview of the land use in Thor’s Bakke (Source: Lokalplan,
2007, UPM0703, 2008) ..................................................................................... 57
Figure 4-9: Allocation of built area by land uses in percent (source: Arkitema,
UPM0703, 2008) ............................................................................................... 57
Figure 4-10: Localisation of the ‘City Park’ in Thor’s Bakke (source: Arkitema)
.......................................................................................................................... 60
Figure 4-11: Design of the ‘City Park’ in the top of the library (source:
Arkitema) .......................................................................................................... 61
Figure 4-12: Source of inspiration for the design of the ‘City Park’ as a roof of
the library (source: Arkitema) ........................................................................... 61
Figure 4-13: ‘Greenery’ in map of Thor’s Bakke (source: Arkitema, UPM0703,
2008) ................................................................................................................. 63
Figure 4-14: Analytical visualization of the implementation of measurements
–analysis. (Source: UPM0703, 2008) ................................................................ 69
Figure 5-1: Parking spaces in Randers (Source: Google maps, UPM0703,
2008) ................................................................................................................. 73
Figure 5-2: Principle of the closure of a U-shape building (Source: UPM0703,
2008) ................................................................................................................. 75
Figure 5-3: Illustration of the implementation of vertical zoning in addition to
horizontal zoning (source: UPM0703, 2008 with inspiration from Montgomery,
1998, p. 110) ................................................................................................... 77
Figure 5-4: Arnstein´s ladder of citizen’s participation (in Pacione, 2005 p.
441) ................................................................................................................... 78
Figure 5-5: Proposal of the new layout of sub area 4 - green space and library
(source: UPM0703, 2008) ................................................................................. 83
Figure 5-6: Green and filtering trench in the Vauban neighbourhood (source:
UPM0703, 2008) ............................................................................................... 84
Figure 5-7: Principle cross section of trench (source: UPM0703, 2008)......... 84
Figure 5-8: Roof of the Sargfabrik, Vienna (source: Sargfabrik) .................... 85
Figure 5-9: Visualization of proposals (source: UPM0703, 2008, based on
Arkitema map) .................................................................................................. 87
LIST OF TABLES
Table 3-1: Summary of our own measurements (Source: UPM0703, 2008) .. 44
Table 4-1: Density in Thor’s Bakke according to sub-areas (source: Lokalplan,
2007, UPM0703, 2008) ..................................................................................... 54
Table 5-1: Consequences of the proposals in terms of density (Source:
Arkitema, UPM0703, 2008) ............................................................................... 75
Table 5-2: Summary table of the proposals (source: UPM0703, 2008) .......... 86
LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix A:
Details concerning Danish National Strategy and Minister’s
Paper
Appendix B:
Interview guide
Appendix C:
E-mail to Philippe Dehan
Appendix D: Calculations concerning density from the local plan, 2007
Appendix E:
Transcription of interview with Kristian Langkilde, architect
Arkitema
Appendix F:
English summary of interview with Mogens Nyholm, a local
politician in Randers
Appendix G: Interview with four employees in the municipality of Randers,
working with sustainability
Appendix H: Arkitema brochure (PDF file, for Thor’s Bakke)
Appendix I:
Calculations concerning density for proposal
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1. PROBLEM ANALYSIS
Today’s cities are complex. They are nodes of economic production and
consumption, connected in a global economic network; they are settings of
culture and social interactions and the junction of political power and
administrative regulation. But the first thing cities are usually associated with
is their built environment and their functional aspects. Cities are defined by
their structure: by the relation of buildings, streets and nature. These are also
the factors which form and change the city (Pacione, 2005). On the other
hand, the complexity lies within the constant processes of growth or decline,
which can be measured for a city as a unit or for smaller zones in the city. The
complex city can experience stagnation in one area one day and the next day
this stagnation can lead to an opportunity in a different area. The interplay of
these processes of change is what drives urban development. Allan Cochrane
describes the cities as inherently heterogeneous (Pile et al, 1999), and in this
heterogeneity lies the complexity of the city.
Urban planning and management tries to understand these complex driving
forces of urban development and provide strategies to harness, improve,
prevent and cope with the complex processes and their results. The study of
an implication of the complex city process on the sustainable development of
an urban area is therefore important. How can sustainable urban development
be undertaken in the complex city of today and how do we best practice
sustainability in the current environment of globalization, climate change and
international economics. The complex city is not a negative phenomenon in
itself, but rather it is how planning intervenes that determines how the city
may thrive on its own elements of complexity.
In the last two decades the main paradigm that has been the basis of how
cities are planned and managed has been that of sustainable development.
But what is sustainable development? How can this be achieved in the
complex cities and when is a city truly sustainable? These questions generate
many other questions due to the complex nature of today’s cities.
1.1.1. Evolution of sustainability
In 1987 the European Commission on Environment and Development (WCEP)
released the book “Our common future” also known as the Brundtland Report.
The aim of the Brundtland Report was to raise awareness in the international
community about the environmental problem that the world was facing
concerning sustainable development (Muttagi, 1997). According to the
Brundtland Report (1987, p. 51) sustainable development is:
How to plan sustainably at the local level – a qualitative assessment
1
"development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of futures generations to meet their own
needs."
But what does this mean and for whom? Sustainable development, as defined
in the Brundtland Report, concerns economic, environmental as well as social
issues. The social aspect of sustainability is often a focus in the developing
countries where the need for the basics such as proper housing and a
functioning healthcare system is most important in order to make a
sustainable society i.e. the Basic Needs approach (Golandaz, 1997). The
economic aspect of sustainability is more important in countries or regions
where the ambition is to create and maintain economic growth that is not
harmful to the environment i.e. the ecological modernization approach. The
aspect of environmental sustainability is often the most used term to
implement sustainability in the developed world. The ambition in the
developed world is to minimize the impact that a city and its population can
have to its surroundings and indeed around the world.
In the developed countries, urban development has generated enormous
consumption of energy and a significant production of waste, whereas the
large city areas in developing countries face problems with managing the
slum areas and securing clean water supply for their inhabitants (Joglekar,
1997). That means that even if the concept of sustainable development seems
to be universal and built upon the same foundation, the solutions and the
priorities to achieve the sustainable development are different.
One of the challenges for cities in the industrialized countries is to reduce their
ecological footprint1 and thereby participate in the making of a more
sustainable world through sustainable cities (Golandaz, 1997). This reduction
demands a change in consumption patterns as well as a change in the urban
area in order to influence the effects cities have on the environment via the
transport system and urban design among other measures (Golandaz, 1997).
It should be noted that the question of urban sustainability is one that is as
complex as the city itself, and there are numerous views on how it can be
achieved. In essence, the quest for sustainability in the Western context is
essentially the quest for the ‘sustainable city’ and the United Nations Centre
for Human Settlement (UNCHS) defines a sustainable city as a city, “where
achievements in social, economic and physical development are made to last”
(Bhattacharya, 1997, p. 60).
However, today sustainability is a frequently deployed term which seems to
mean so many different things to many people. Some questioned its utility as
a paradigm. Despite this obvious ambiguity and relativity sustainable
development remains the most progressive paradigm in the current
generation and provides a commendable framework for thinking about the
way we can better plan and manage our cities and the complex processes in
them. Though it is possibly an elusive goal, it is a worthwhile goal for cities
around the world no matter how complex they are.
The development of cities is, as mentioned before, determined by many
factors, still planners developed a rather simple tool to steer the development
1
Ecological footprint is defined by “the land-area and natural-resource capital on which the city
draws to sustain its population and production structure (Patione, 2005, p. 668).
How to plan sustainably at the local level – a qualitative assessment
2
of cities and rural areas: national and regional developments strategies,
master plans on a more local level for more detailed land use plans.
In Denmark, spatial planning is divided into different levels or hierarchies. The
government formulates a general spatial planning strategy, each region
formulates a strategy and finally each municipality makes a master plan. The
final step is the making of a local plan; each part of a city has a local plan
were the specific agenda for an area is put into words. This is a guideline for
entrepreneurs and inhabitants, which regulates the activities in the specific
area.
Almost 90% of the Danish population lives in cities, fifty years ago this was
70%. In the same period of time, the area that cities occupy has tripled. Since
2000 the urban area has increased by 10 % meanwhile the population has
increased by 4 % (Minister's Paper, 2008).
1.2. THE DANISH NATIONAL STRATEGY FOR
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
In 2002 the Danish government released a paper called “Denmark's National
Strategy for sustainable development - A shared future - balanced
development”. Sustainability in the Strategy is often connected with the
environmental effects of the globalised world economy and the dramatic
implications of global climate change. The paper tries to provide solutions for
the upcoming problems, whereas the area of action is not restricted to
Denmark’s borders but sees the issue of sustainability as a goal which can be
achieved through international cooperation. The Strategy divides the fields of
action by sectors. It covers among other things the topic of urban and housing
development. The paper states that Denmark is a country that enables
economic, environmental and social problems to be dealt with. In order to
continue this sensible economic growth, socially balanced development and
protection of nature, the environment and human health must be the
objective and aim. All these aspects should be used in order to make Denmark
one of the best countries to work, live and reside in. However, it is stated that
economic growth and high living standards must not lead to further
environmental pollution, so the challenge is to find the balance (The Danish
Government, 2002).
The Strategy is split into eight objectives and strategies, which state that:
1. The welfare society must be developed and economic growth
decoupled from environmental impacts
2. There must be a safe and healthy environment for everyone, and
Denmark must maintain a high level of protection
3. A high degree of bio-diversity and protect ecosystems must be secured
4. Resources must be used more efficiently
5. Action must be taken at the international level
6. Environmental concerns must be taken into account in all sectors
7. The market must support sustainable development
8. Sustainable development is a shared responsibility, and the progress
must be measured.
How to plan sustainably at the local level – a qualitative assessment
3
Each of these eight guidelines is relevant for this project, especially guideline
number eight. Details about the urban form elements in the Danish National
Strategy can be seen in appendix A. The Strategy is written as a guideline for
the municipalities so that they can focus on specific aspects where sustainable
development is the mean and goal. It is a very general paper that provides
ideas towards a more sustainable development, but does not state clear
measurements. The Strategy does not assess the impacts of the proposals, so
there is no evaluation of the effects which would result from changing the
urban form.
Since the paper’s release, many government papers have been issued in
order to give an overview and thereby advise the regions and municipalities
on how sustainable development should be achieved. The most recent paper
is from October 2008; where the focus is on how the urban form should be
designed in order to reach the Local Agenda 21 goals (The Danish
Government, 2002). Details about the urban form elements in the Minister’s
Paper can be seen in appendix A.
1.3. MINISTER’S PAPER, OCTOBER 2008
In November of 2007 a new Minister of the Environment was appointed, Troels
Lund Poulsen. The Ministry of Environment is also the ministry of Planning and
has pointed out what the municipalities should focus on in their daily work
with planning. Troels Lund Poulsen has formulized what he thinks should be
the aim in the coming years in city planning; his plan is called “Den moderne,
bæredygtige by” (“The modern sustainable city”), and was released in
October of 2008.
The modern sustainable city is meant to be a starting point for, and an
opportunity to initiate a debate concerning how to create the cities of the
future, cities that are liveable to all. The paper is meant as a political initiative
and gives the ministers views on which elements should be included in the
future sustainable city (Minister's Paper, 2008).
The overall elements that are suggested as the tools to reach the modern
sustainable city are, dense cities, green cities, blue cities and healthier cities.
In the paper the Minister exemplifies density with the argument that cities in
Denmark grow in population but the ecological footprint of the cities grows at
a much faster pace than the growth in population.
It is mentioned that the challenge is to combine all the elements mentioned
above, to build dense but still be able to implement water, green elements
and create a structure in the cities that enables the population to get their
daily exercise (Minister's Papier, 2008). The Minister states that in order to
combine the different elements that are mentioned in his paper, it is
necessary to make better planning tools and thereby make sustainable
constructive solutions. The Minister would like for the tools to be developed
through experience in the municipalities and then they can be a part of the
public debate that will begin in 2009 (Minister's Paper, 2008).
Even though the Strategy does not give definite prescriptive advice on the
design elements to be used in integrating sustainability into urban
development, it does however provide the basic framework that requires
sustainability to be integrated into all aspects of Danish life and society.
How to plan sustainably at the local level – a qualitative assessment
4
According to the Danish environmental minister, Troels Lund Poulsen, the
environmental problems arise in the cities but this is also the place where they
can be solved. He recommends that the development focus be on creating
more dense cities and thereby increasing the versatility, life and pulse of the
city through new function of the city centre and reduce the use of cars. The
challenge lies in combining building “denser, green, blue and healthier”
(Minister's Paper, 2008). Furthermore the minister emphasises that it must be
taken into account that Denmark consists of approximately 300 cities with
more than 2000 inhabitants in each, no cities are alike and different planning
tools must be used in order to move towards a more sustainable city, each
solution must be adapted to the context (Minister's Paper, 2008).
The Danish minister of environment questions whether the tool box for the
municipal planners and entrepreneurs is good enough to reach the goal of
modern sustainable cities. He proposes that the municipalities creates
‘sustainability barometers’, indicators or other tools in order to ensure
sustainable development in the modern cities and in addition to this insurance
also to analyse if each municipality is on the right path towards sustainability.
The minister suggests future developments of cities should be adjusted to the
goals of the Local Agenda 212 (Minister's Paper, 2008).
In a time where the world is realising the impact that global warming can have
on us and the future generations, what can we, as planners, do? In 1987 the
Brundtland Report suggested sustainability as a goal for the future. How can
sustainability change an urban area? What are the characteristics of a
sustainable neighbourhood, zone or an entire city? And how can this urban
form be achieved? These reflections lead to the problem formulation of this
report.
1.4. PROBLEM FORMULATION
The following is the research question and the two sub-questions that our
report will attempt to tackle as well as answer.
IS A SUSTAINABLE URBAN FORM ACHIEVABLE IN THE COMPLEX CITY?
This question is the basic research question for this project. In order to be able
to answer this question different approaches towards sustainable
development will be analysed and we will attempt to define the blurred term
of sustainability. As long as the term is not defined no judgement can be
rendered whether a progress towards sustainability is made.
Sustainability and its objectives are different in a developing country
compared to that of a developed country. In this report the question should be
answered which elements make a city sustainable and how can they be
spotted in the Western context. This report focuses on the Danish planning
context, where the strategies towards sustainability are analysed on the basis
of a local level and the way the strategies are put into practice.
2
Agenda 21 is an action plan describing fields in which sustainable development should be put
into practise. It was adopted by a great number of countries during the Earth Summit held in Rio
de Janeiro in 1992.
How to plan sustainably at the local level – a qualitative assessment
5
So the question that still remains is: How can a sustainable urban form be
achieved in order to help cities reduce their ecological footprint? Which
individual elements have a big role to play towards the achievement of a
sustainable city as whole?
The overall question opens up two sub-questions which need to be answered
in order to respond to the first question:
-
How do we measure sustainability in the urban context?
The first sub-question assumes that urban sustainability is achievable through
urban form. So if urban sustainability is achievable through urban form then it
should also be measurable. By ‘measurable’ we do not mean to track the
development of certain statistical indicators for sustainability but
characteristics or components of a sustainable urban form. The aim of this
report is to identify the measurements in a qualitative way.
Why measure sustainability at all? An attempt to this end is not an easy
endeavour but the justification comes from several quarters. The Danish
National Strategy highlights, as one of its eight main principles, the need to
measure progress towards sustainability which was explained in Chapter 1
(The Danish Government, 2002). Where else would it be best to measure
progress than in an average Danish city that is undertaking an urban
development project.
Another justification for measuring sustainability comes from the early
practitioners in the field of sustainable development. Gardner (1987, p. 27)
suggests that:
“...measuring and assessing progress (towards sustainability) can be a
catalyst in steering planning and decision-making away from unsustainability. The role of urban planning in sustainable development
should therefore be taken seriously.”
Indeed the measurement of progress towards sustainability is what will make
the difference between whether the sustainable city remains a dream or
slowly becomes a reality. Satterthwaite (1997) puts it in a different light when
he advocates for cities to be able to account for their environmental
performance. This accountability can only be achieved if there is some form of
measurement or assessment of progress.
The intention with the case study is to investigate whether sustainability is
already being used on the local level and which elements are used as
measurements? These thoughts lead up to the second sub question:
-
To what extent is urban sustainability used in the local
planning of Randers?
This is the second sub-question and helps to examine closely the local plan for
Thor’s Bakke – the chosen project site in the city of Randers - and analyse how
far the measurements of sustainability have been applied. This sub-question
also helps us realise what is most important to the Randers municipality in
terms of sustainable development i.e. those elements of sustainable form that
How to plan sustainably at the local level – a qualitative assessment
6
are more important for them. It also highlights for us how far they have
pursued these elements in their planning activities.
These three questions are the basis of this report. In order to answer them
different approaches have been used. The methodological assumptions and
decisions will be presented and discussed in the following chapter.
How to plan sustainably at the local level – a qualitative assessment
7
How to plan sustainably at the local level – a qualitative assessment
8
CHAPTER 2: METHODOLOGY
This chapter aims to describe and to justify the applied research methods in
this project. It will look at the different methods used in the report. In other
words, this chapter is devoted to explain to the reader why the chosen
methodology was used and if necessary to enable the replication of the report
by making the way this report has been carried out understandable and
transparent.
When choosing a method for a project, several things have to be considered:
what is being investigated and why? How will the ‘object’ be investigated, is it
a quantitative or qualitative research? What kind of research design will be
used and how is the case study chosen? The first paragraph of this chapter
concerns the project design, this part is intended to give an overview of the
project and make the transitions from one chapter to another clear.
2.1. PROJECT DESIGN
The report is divided into three main parts. The first part deals with the
introduction and methodology of the project. The second part deals with the
theoretical background and the third part deals with the case study, findings
and then proposals for the future. After the third part, the report is completed
with a conclusion. Figure 2-1 shows the structure of the project. The research
question and the two sub-questions are formulated in such a way as to
provide a guide through every stage of the research process in this report.
How to plan sustainably at the local level – a qualitative assessment
9
Part I INTRODUCTION
Chapter 1;
Introduction
Problem
Part II LITERATURE
REVIEW
Chapter 3;
Theoretical framework
Part III CASE STUDY
AND
ANALYSIS
Chapter 2;
Methodology
Chapter 4;
Analysis (Case
study Thor’s Bakke)
Chapter 5;
Proposals
Chapter 6;
Conclusion
Figure 2-1: Project design which shows how each of the parts and chapters are linked
(Source: UPM0703, 2008)
2.2. METHODOLOGICAL APPROACH
Research methods are necessary tool to be able to answer the research
questions mentioned in the problem formulation and to be able to answer
them several methods have to be used. This section covers the way of
reasoning, the different research methods used to carry out the report, the
justification of using a single case study and the sources of evidence.
2.2.1. Deductive and inductive reasoning
This project switches between deductive and inductive reasoning. Both ways
of reasoning are used in this project and are devoted to enriching the answer
to the main research question. These two approaches concern the relationship
between theory and research. Basically, deductive reasoning works from the
more general theory to the more specific whereas inductive reasoning works
the other way, from more specific observations to broader generalizations and
theories (Bryman, 2004).
How to plan sustainably at the local level – a qualitative assessment
10
The Inductive approach is applied in the first part of this project. The Danish
National Strategy is used as an entrance key for this report. It allows the
development of a pragmatic understanding of the goals of this report and the
appreciation of certain stakes underlying it before acquiring some more
theoretical knowledge. The inductive approach ensures the practical
grounding of the theoretical framework and to build up the report. The
theoretical framework serves to broaden and strengthen our knowledge. It
aims to generalize inferences from observations and empirical data with the
literature review.
On the other hand, the approach between theory and the case study is
deductive as the theory constitutes the generic and critical grid that is used to
analyze a specific case study. It aims to explain the measurements that must
be either confirmed or rejected in the case study.
Lastly, the loop is closed with the adoption of an inductive approach at the
latter stage of this report. Here several proposals are presented as
recommendations of how to increase sustainability in the case of Thor’s
Bakke. References and examples coming from literature and other case
studies are employed.
Therefore, the figure explaining inductive and deductive reasoning can be
made more specific in the context of this project as Figure 2-2 shows.
Theory
Observations
Measurements
(Check-list)
Case study
(Thor’s Bakke)
Figure 2-2: Illustration of how deductive and inductive approaches are used in the
report. (Source: UPM0703, 2008)
2.2.2. Qualitative research methods
For this project qualitative research methods are mainly used. Qualitative
methods are applied to gain more insight into the planning process and the
decision making process, to come up with new ideas, to emerge with new
concepts or theory. Qualitative methods aim for a deeper understanding of
phenomena. Qualitative methods are based on literature review,
documentation, interviews and field observations (Yin, 2003; Bryman, 2004).
These criteria will be mentioned in more depth in sub section 2.2.4.
How to plan sustainably at the local level – a qualitative assessment
11
2.2.3. Case study
The project is based on an existing problem in current urban development. To
provide a solution for the problem, a bridge is established between theory and
practice with a case study. The problem formulation in this project deals with
the questions of "how" and "why" which leads up to a case study (Yin, 2003).
The case study as chosen methodology is often used where the aim is to
describe the relation between different levels for example in organizational,
social, political aspects, and further more a case study gives the opportunity
to create conclusions based upon real life events and thereby gives a
meaningful characteristic of among other things neighbourhood changes (Yin,
2003).
Another reason for the use of a case study for the answering of the problem
formulation is that a case study enables a conclusion to be made from
different kinds of evidence such as documents, interviews and observations
(Yin, 2003), all these elements are used in this project and will be described in
depth in sub section 2.2.4. Yin even argues for the case study approach by
saying that this method of working can create such valid knowledge that it is
even possible to make a case study without ever leaving the library. The goal
of using case study as a method is to be able to generalize related to theories,
a case study does not aim to represent a sample but instead the goal is to
generalize theories (Yin, 2003; Flyvbjerg, 2006).
2.2.3.1. A typical and a critical case study
A ‘single case study’ (Yin, 2003) was chosen by ‘informed choice’ (Flyvbjerg,
2006; Bryman, 2004). First, we have chosen a case study that really matters
to the entire group, according to our expectations as well as the composition
of the project group. Given that each member comes from a different country,
we wanted to take advantage of this seventh semester of study in Denmark to
investigate, in more depth, how this country deals with the issue of planning
in general and sustainability in particular.
Of course, the main requirement for choosing the case study is that it has to
be very relevant in terms of sustainability for the research question. Moreover
the case study should not be too big or too small in order to allow us to have
an overview of the city and its urban context. That’s why we have chosen a
case study that should be about a local urban area in a medium size Danish
city: Randers (the sixth largest city in Denmark). This choice was also guided
by the fact that we early on got into contact with the planning department in
Randers and we had an informal meeting with an urban planner in order to
choose a local urban area relevant for the project. This led us to Thor’s Bakke
in Randers as a case study for this project.
On the other hand, we were assured that this case study was relevant in
terms of sustainability by having a close look on world-recognized reports.
Indeed, Local Agenda 21 for instance, which will be specified in Chapter 4,
strongly advocates for incorporating sustainability on a local level (typically at
the city level). That means that from now on, new urban projects should
integrate sustainability, in whatever project. This reveals that our case study
is both:
How to plan sustainably at the local level – a qualitative assessment
12
- A typical case study in the sense that it is representative for any urban
project. According to Yin (2003) the objective of a typical case is to capture
the circumstances and conditions of an everyday situation.
- A critical case study in the sense that if we manage to measure
sustainability by choosing this case study, sustainability is assumed to be
measurable whatever the project or the case study. In other words, and
according to Yin (2003), critical case study is suitable when testing a well
formulated theory. It should be noted that it is not our intension to make
this case study a representative of a sample but rather it was chosen
because of its proximity to data. If it should emerge to be a representative
of a sample then that came about unwittingly.
To the mentioned purposes of the case study, a ‘single case study’ was
chosen rather than a multiple case study because it enables us to get the
most information about the research question in light of our resource
limitations, mainly time and financial constraints. The group thought that by
focusing on a single case, a deeper understanding of the subject would be
developed. By so we will obtain in-depth knowledge of one case instead of
scratching the surface by looking at many cases.
In addition to that, this case study has the advantage that Thor’s Bakke is still
being designed and only a part of the entire project is being built at the time
that the report is being written. The ongoing process offers the possibility to
see how sustainability is implemented in different stages and according to
different urban actors.
2.2.4. Multiple Sources of Evidence
According to Yin (2003) there are six sources of evidence for case studies:
documents, archival records, interviews, direct observation, participant
observation and physical artefacts. As mentioned earlier, for this project, case
study, documents, interviews and direct field observations were used. No
single source has complete advantage over the others. For a valid knowledge
it is best to use two or more together; a good case study contains as many
sources as possible. In other words, a data ‘triangulation’ is applied that
consists of mixing many sources of evidence, of information to carry out the
report “so that findings may be cross-checked” (Bryman, 2004, p. 545) as
seen in
Figure 2-3. However the figure does not show to which degree each of the
sources of evidence was used but indicates how each source has an impacts
on perceived ‘reality’.
How to plan sustainably at the local level – a qualitative assessment
13
Interviews
Statistics data
‘Reality’
Field observations
Literature/documents
Figure 2-3: Data triangulation (Source: UPM0703, 2008, adapted from Bryman, 2004)
2.2.4.1. Interviews
Interviews are one of the most important information sources of the case
study. They are directly focused on the case study topic and provide casual
inferences. However the structure of the interview guideline has to be
carefully constructed in order to prevent bias, both from the interviewer and
for the interviewee (Yin, 2003). That is why an interview guide (see appendix
B) was designed in the perspective to conduct semi-structured interview.
According to Bryman (2004, pp. 113/543) “a semi-structured interview is a
term that covers a wide range of types. It typically refers to a context in which
the interviewer has a series of questions that are in the general form of an
interview guide but is able to vary the sequence of questions. The questions
are frequently somewhat more in general in their frame of reference from
what is typically found in a structured interview schedule. Also, the
interviewer usually has some latitude to ask further questions in response to
what are seen as significant replies.”
According to Kvale (1996, p. 129) “an interview guide indicates the topic and
their sequences in the interview. The guide can contain just some rough topics
to be covered or it can be a detailed sequence of carefully worded questions.”
The semi-structured interview has the main advantage of coming up with new
ideas, new concepts from the interviewee that were not thought of before.
That is precisely the reason why a semi-structured interview is chosen in order
to be enriched by new aspects as the interview-partners get the chance to
clarify which things matter to them. The semi-structured interview gives the
possibility to identify the positions and aims of the different actors concerning
the project development (Thor's Bakke) and sustainability. The interviews
enable the project group to identify the focus points of the actors along with
the challenges of a sustainable development.
Three ‘key-persons’ with different levels of interest and viewpoints were
interviewed in the context of the case study chosen:
- four employees from the municipality of Randers all working with
sustainability, two who are from the Planning Department;
- a politician who is also the chairperson of Technical and Environmental
Department in Randers;
- an architect from the project architecture company Arkitema, which won
the competition to design the project layout.
To enable the comparability of the results for all of the three interviews the
same questionnaire was used – with slight variations.
How to plan sustainably at the local level – a qualitative assessment
14
2.2.4.2. Field observations
According to Yin (2003) there are two kinds of observations; a direct- and a
participant observation. We chose a field trip to give us an opportunity to
make direct observations (field notes and photographs mainly). It enabled us
to gather information, for example that the construction on the site was
already in progress. We saw that the location of the site was close to the city
centre and how the scenery of the site was embedded in its surroundings. For
the group, it made the project more tangible and helped form a better
understanding of the project. Moreover the fact that all of the 5 members of
the group made the field trip can be seen as a way “to increase the reliability
of observational evidence” (Yin, 2003 p. 93).
2.2.4.3. Documentation
Documentation represents a great part of the sources of this report, especially
because it deals to some extent with the Danish view of sustainability and
because our case study, Thor’s Bakke, is still under construction.
Documentation is relevant to every case study topic. It includes a variety of
documents which in most cases are exact and have a broad coverage.
However, the documents ought to be looked at with critical eyes because they
do not contain the ultimate truth and should be carefully chosen. Every
document has been written for some specific purpose and for some specific
people (Bryman, 2004; Kvale, 1996; Yin, 2003). Various websites concerning
the project were also visited and referenced appropriately.
For this case study the main documents for the analysis were the Danish
National Strategy, the Minister’s Paper for sustainable modern cities, the local
plan for Thor’s Bakke and the design brochure made by Arkitema for Thor’s
Bakke. As mentioned in Chapter 1 the Danish National Strategy gives a broad
picture of sustainability in the Danish context. For this case study it is relevant
because it gives us an overview on the Danish context. It is the same with the
Minister’s Paper and the local plan. This is all relevant to this case study but
was not written with our project in mind, the purpose of it was totally different
and therefore we have to be critical and do not look at it as the ultimate truth.
2.3. LIMITATIONS
The first limitation concerns the interviews. One interview was conducted in
English, the second in Danish and the third was conducted through an e-mail
correspondence.
The interview partner interviewed in English seemed not to be able to
formulate himself in English as well as he would have in Danish. Nevertheless
the discussion was perfectly understandable thanks to the body-language and
the support of maps. A valid limitation to the interviews is that the interviewee
might have told more about questions or differently if he had had the
opportunity to respond to the interview in Danish. Moreover, the different
interviewees’ schedule was such that the first interview took place on the
tenth of November whereas the last one was carried out on the third of
December. During this time, a great step forward was necessarily made in the
report and we got more experience by the third interview than we had at the
How to plan sustainably at the local level – a qualitative assessment
15
first interview. All of these things underline the fact that we were more
‘expert’ and critical so that the questions were necessarily more investigated.
Eventually, mainly for time reasons and availabilities of the interviewee, the
last interview was actually a group interview which was conducted through an
e-mail process. This had an impact on the validity as mentioned above
because with the written/emailed interview, follow up questions were not
possible. It should also be borne in mind that the interviews were only with
professional ‘key-persons’ and the citizens were not interviewed. By searching
results only from professional ‘key-person’, we ran the risk of missing some
arguments and ideas coming from the citizens which would be as valid as
those of the ‘key-persons’.
The second limitation of the case study design is the possibility of being too
focused on the objective and thereby being too narrow-minded in the
approach. This can lead to an investigation that in the worst case can be
locked on finding solutions to the problem formulation which is not the
obvious solution but just the aim in the beginning of the project period.
Therefore it is important to evaluate whether the chosen methodology is
suited to the answering of the problem formulation.
Another limitation is that many authors were used and referred to in this
report, especially in the theory part. The origins and backgrounds of the
authors (urban planner, architect, sociologist, scholars, etc...) are highly
important in the use of their arguments. Even if the focus of this report is on
the Western European context, we referred to authors who did not necessarily
come from European countries but from elsewhere. That means the
sociological, economical, political and environmental context in which the
arguments was used by authors themselves might be to some extent different
from the context we are focus on. On the other hand, the fact that a great
amount of references were combined makes the discussion and the
arguments coherent and pertinent yet.
Concerning the limitations for the group, the first obvious limitation that we
faced with was the time. The project period was from the beginning of
September 2008 until the beginning of January 2009 as mentioned earlier.
Secondly, part of this project is based on a great number of documents only
available in Danish (local plan, Minister’s Paper, Arkitema brochure, etc.). As a
multicultural group, the Danish language was obviously a serious barrier in the
appropriate analysis of the different documents.
Then, thirdly, the ‘learning-by-doing’ pedagogy is new for most of us.
Moreover our multicultural and different academic backgrounds complicated a
little bit more the process. Coming from Zimbabwe, France, Iceland, Hungary
and Denmark, the group is composed of two planners, two geographers and
one urban engineer. Consequently, each of us has different habits of learning,
different skills and ways of conducting a project and a different view of the
project group. Therefore, a lot of time was necessary to learn to work together
beyond these cultural and academic barriers.
The two previous chapters were about the introduction and the methods that
are applied in this report. The following chapter concerns a literature review
on how Sustainable urban development is perceived on a national level in
Denmark. The aim of this chapter is to see how this framework from the
government reflects on the planning work on the local level.
How to plan sustainably at the local level – a qualitative assessment
16
CHAPTER 3: THEORETICAL
FRAMEWORK
If there is one concept that guides societies today, all over the world it is that
of sustainable development. Today Mankind is confronted with growing
populations and growing demands on the Earth’s resources, yet there can only
be one Earth. The current preoccupation of most authorities today is therefore
how to balance Mankind’s demands on the Earth’s resources with the
regenerative capacity of the Earth’s natural processes to prevent a looming
global environmental disaster.
The following sections seek to highlight, first, the importance of sustainable
development in current cities then analyse the approach which is dominant in
the Western urban context. Then the focus is on identifying the main concepts
and components upon which the sustainable urban development is grounded.
Thirdly, a critical analysis of the unsustainable form is presented that leads to
a reflection about a more sustainable urban form. Through all of this, we will
have a close look at the role of the urban planner in the battle for a more
sustainable urban form.
3.1. SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND THE CITY
Sustainable development has been defined as development that “meets the
needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to
meet their own needs” (World Commission on Environment and Development
(WCED), 1987, p. 43). The concept of sustainable development was launched
by the Brundtland Commission in 1987. It should be noted though that there is
no commonly accepted single definition of sustainable development; though
the most cited is the definition by the Brundtland Commission (Haughton &
Hunter, 1996). The group defines sustainable development as:
“...the measurable, continuous and simultaneous process of economic, social
and environmental growth, which acts in the short-term towards achieving
long-term goals. Sustainable development seeks to re-establish the balance
between nature and Humanity where Humans adapt to nature”
It would be prudent to highlight first the three major principles that underline
the process of sustainable development. The first is the principle of intergenerational equity: this implies that when considering any human activity
there is a need for consideration the effects this activity has on the ability of
future generations to meet their own needs and aspirations. This is sometimes
called the principle of futurity (Haughton & Hunter, 1996).
The second principle on which sustainable development is based is that of
social justice. Social justice is concerned with the current generations, where
poverty is seen as the prime cause of degradation. Sustainability requires that
access to and distribution of resources is equitable, taking into account basic
How to plan sustainably at the local level – a qualitative assessment
17
needs and common aspirations. Wider public participation in environmental
strategies and policies is essential for the realisation of social justice. This is
sometimes called the principle of intra-generational equity (Haughton &
Hunter, 1996).
The third principle that underlies sustainable development is the principle of
trans-frontier responsibility. This principle highlights the need for global
stewardship of the global environment. Trans-frontier pollution needs to be
recognised and controlled and where possible, the impacts of human activity
should not involve the uncompensated geographical displacement of
environmental problems. Rich nations should not over-exploit the resources of
other areas just as the environmental costs of activities in urban areas should
not be displaced across metropolitan boundaries (Haughton & Hunter, 1996;
Satterthwaite, 1997).
Since 1987 when the concept of sustainable development was introduced, and
during the two decades that have passed since its launch, governments all
over the world have realised that urban areas and their development are of
great importance to the achievement of sustainability based on the three
broad principles mentioned above. This is because the world has been
urbanising at a very high rate, much faster than ever before.
As of mid-2007 more than 50% of the world’s population live in an area that
might be considered as an urban area (UN HABITAT, 2006). This is what UN
HABITAT in 2006 called the “arrival of the urban millennium”. From this fact
that cities house more than 50% of the world’s population on less than 5% of
the planet’s surface (reference unknown), they thus become very central
stakes in the achievement of sustainable development. The sustainable
development of cities is central because “half the people and three quarters of
the world’s environmental problems reside in cities“ (Rees, 1997, p. 304).
Though the rate of urbanization is highest in the developing world of Africa,
Asia and Latin America at 4-7% per year (Knox & Marston, 2003) the extent of
urbanisation is already quite high in the developed world of Europe, the United
States and Australia with 70-90% in levels of urbanization (Knox & Marston,
2003).
The percentages of people living in urban areas in Europe and Denmark are
estimated to be at 74.8% and 89.3% by 2020 respectively (United Nations,
2007). Cities have therefore become the dominant context for living
(Whitehead, 2007). We site these statistics and not those of the rest of the
world primarily because our physical area of research is Denmark.
Indeed cities and their development are a key element in the current social
and environmental crisis that the world faces (Pile et al, 1999). “Cities lie at
the heart of the agenda about environmentally sustainable development”
(Burton & Matson, 1996, p. 299). The main reason why cities are so important
to any attempt at saving the environment through sustainable development is
because of their function and role in the global economy since the
industrialization. Cities are the sites of production of nearly all forms of goods
used by humanity as well as the pollution that results from production. They
are consumers of their produce as well as the produce of agricultural areas.
They are the location where most of the world’s people live as well as where
the nations of the world are governed. “Today for the first time in the history
of human kind, urban dwellers outnumber rural residents. Urban places, town
How to plan sustainably at the local level – a qualitative assessment
18
and cities are of fundamental importance for the distribution of population
within the countries, in the organization of economic production, distribution
and exchange; in the structuring of social reproduction and cultural life; and in
the allocation of power” (Pacione, 2005, p. Abstract). Cities are the main
functional unit of analysis in political economics and not the states in which
they are found; and therefore it makes sense to focus on cities is a main unit
of analysis in sustainable development (Jacobs, 1985).
But why has the city been regarded as the main culprit in the current
environmental crisis? The city has often been viewed with distaste, with
Friedmann (Friedmann, 1984, pp. 48-49) seeing the city as an “over grown
organ [...] cancer is a lethal illness.” Mayur (Mayur, 1990, pp. 37-38) is even
more disgusted with cities calling them “overgrown monstrosities [...] only
catastrophe await such a system of disharmony.” It seems that the linear
processes and systems of production, consumption and disposal of the city i.e.
“the metabolism of modern cities” differs very much from Nature’s
circular metabolism, where every output and input from any organism renews
and sustains the whole living environment (Pacione, 2005, p. 610). Because of
this growing incompatibility between the modern city and nature, the drive for
the past two decades has been to make cities much less harmful to the
environment through sustainable development as advocated for by the
Brundtland Commission (1987).
The sustainable city has been the international goal of urban planning since
the introduction of the concept of sustainable development (Whitehead,
2007). The sustainable city is a settlement where human needs are met
without depleting environmental resources or environmental capital
(Satterthwaite, 1997). It is not cities that sustainable development seeks to
sustain but rather, the ability of cities to meet the needs of its citizens. The
cities need to adapt to this new challenge and they cannot do that by
themselves without the intervention of strong regulation and organisation by
the state or society in the form of urban planners. Indeed, the sustainable
development of cities inherently includes urban planners and the various tools
of their trade, because the city and its processes are essentially the
preoccupation of the urban planner. The main focus for many in the urban
planning fields currently, is how to make a sustainable city out of the existing
city. The sustainable city is thought to be achievable through sustainable
urban development (Satterthwaite, 1997).
Sustainability as a paradigm of planning was initially introduced through the
Agenda 21 set up in 1992 at the UN Conference on Environment and
Development in Rio the Janeiro and was signed by 179 countries. Agenda 21 is
devoted to put into action the sustainable development principles which were
set up by the Brundtland Report, at the National, Regional and Local levels.
Agenda 21 is composed of four sections:
1. Social and Economic Dimensions
2. Conservation and Management of resources for development
3. Strengthening the role of major groups
4. Means of implementation (United Nations, 2004)
The Agenda 21 advocates for a decentralisation towards the local
communities. Local Agenda 21 recognizes that some 70% of the action
required to achieve sustainability needs to be done locally (United Nations
How to plan sustainably at the local level – a qualitative assessment
19
Conference on Environment and Development - UNCED, 1992). Indeed it is
easily understandable that environmental measures can concretely be put
into effect much better at the local level than at the upper levels of
government. As Redclift (1996, p. 1) suggests “we cannot manage the
environment successfully at the global level without first achieving progress
towards sustainability at the local level”. As a result, the Agenda 21 is stated
at a local level named Local Agenda 21.
It is important to note that though cities are important for sustainable
development, there are also the site of conflict and turbulence. Cities are
complex places and urban planning has to take place in this complex and
turbulent arena. There are different and divergent interests, values and actors
in the modern city and all of these determine the level of sustainable
development that the city can achieve (Berke et al, 2006).
The concept of sustainable development is important to current urban
planning because it can become a powerful and useful organizing principle for
planning when understood in the context of the conflicts in the complex city of
the Industrial society (Campbell, 1996). Sustainability is also important to
urban planning because it acts as a referral point on which to focus the
conflicting economic, environmental and social aspects in the complex city.
The city is described as complex purposely because it is not just a “container
in which things happen [...] but rather it is a complex mixture of nodes and
networks, places and flows, in which multiple relations, activities and values
exist, interact, combine, conflict, oppress and generate creative energy”
(Healey, 2007, p. 1). Because cities are essentially dynamic and their order
frequently conflictual, planners must always be conscious of this even as they
attempt to make cities more sustainable.
Sustainability has emerged as a common ground, a category of thinking that
is replacing or redefining old categories, such as growth, development,
progress and limits (Sachs, 1993; Daly, 1996). But like all paradigm shifts, the
progress towards sustainability is not very clear and defined but it is a
worthwhile paradigm all the same. The fate of the Earth and indeed the
generations to follow us depends mainly on how far we integrate sustainability
and practice sustainable development.
3.2. THE WESTERN APPROACH TO SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT: ECOLOGICAL MODERNIZATION
The broadly accepted approach to sustainable development in the West is that
of “ecological modernization” (Pile et al, 1999, pp. 265-266). Ecological
modernization is the particular brand of business-friendly sustainability that is
common in the West. The term ecological modernization was first used in the
early 1980s by German political sociologists Joseph Huber and Martin Janicke.
It asserts that it is not economic growth or development which is harmful to
the environment but rather the ‘wrong type’ of economic growth or
development (Whitehead, 2007, p. 37). “Ecological modernization can be
defined as the discourse that recognises the structural character of the
environmental problematic but nevertheless assumes that existing political,
economic and social institutions can internalise the care of the environment.
For this purpose ecological modernization [...] introduces concepts that make
How to plan sustainably at the local level – a qualitative assessment
20
issues of environmental degradation calculable.” (Hajer, 1997, pp. 25-26). The
essential idea is that a clean environment is actually good for business
because it leads to happy and healthy workers, profits for companies that
develop conservation technologies and green products and efficiency in
materials usage. Pollution on the other hand indicates wasteful use of
materials. It is cheaper to tackle environmental problems before they get out
of hand and require expensive remedial action (Dryzek & Schlosberg, 2001, p.
299).
According to Pile et al (1999), ecological modernization as a process towards
sustainable urban development has four main aspects. The first is that by
introducing ecological criteria and circularity into production and consumption
processes, it will be possible to reduce resource consumption and pollution in
the city to sustainable levels. In urban development this means emphasizing
on the reduction of traffic, congestion, waste generation, pollution while
increasing recycling, energy efficiency and green spaces.
The second aspect of ecological modernization is that it assumes the Market
economy to be the most efficient and flexible way of achieving sustainability.
This is to be done through encouraging economic growth that is assumed to
lead to less-polluting and resource-efficient societies like Japan. The
assumption here is that economic growth will provide the capital needed to
clean up the negative environmental effects of Industrialization.
The third aspect of ecological modernization is the enabling role of the State
by providing a regulatory framework for environmental protection. The state is
assumed to have a complementary relationship with the Market.
The fourth aspect of ecological modernization is the incorporation of other
stakeholders e.g. grass roots organization, through participation in
partnership. In this aspect consensus on environmental issues is reached
through “bottom-up” approach in action planning, environmental forums and
focus groups.
It is clear that the Western approach to the sustainable development of cities
focuses more on the physical and functional aspects of the city i.e. the urban
form. This is not wrong at all. Academics agree that individuals in Western
cities are locked into relatively high consumption patterns by the physical
infrastructure over which they have little or no control like energy, housing,
transport and waste collection systems (Satterthwaite, 1997, p. 1685). In
essence urban planning has contributed to un-sustainability by its structuring
of the complex city. However, this also offers an opportunity to the planner
and local authorities because they are in a strong position to advance the
goals of sustainable urban development as direct producers of urban
development plans and agendas. This presents a good case for the study of
the urban form and its design in the context of sustainable urban
development.
Though the case presented by ecological modernization for sustainable urban
development through urban design is good; there are some limitations to it
(ecological modernization) as a process for achieving the sustainable city. One
limitation is that, in the international context, the approach is restricted and
narrows (Pile et al, 1999, p. 267). Western cities may improve due to efforts
towards more sustainable cities but their improvement might be at the
expense of exporting pollution problems elsewhere around the world.
How to plan sustainably at the local level – a qualitative assessment
21
Satterthwaite calls this the ‘transfer of environmental costs’ (1997, p. 1675).
Though the cities might improve, their ecological footprint might not really be
reduced (Rees, W.1997).
Another limitation of approaching sustainable urban development from an
ecological modernization angle is that, though the approach is based on the
assumption that the Market, the State and Society are in a compatible
relationship, this might not be so in reality (Pile et al, 1999). The Market as a
mechanism in society is usually independent or in conflict with the State and
Society. Worse still the Market in the 21st century has become trans-frontier
and global so the State would find it very difficult to control the Market as the
State is spatially –confined (Gordon & Richardson, 1997).
Other criticisms of ecological modernization are based on the belief that in
gaining the support of certain factions of the business community for
sustainable development, some of the most important principles of
sustainability may have been compromised (Whitehead, 2007). Ecological
modernization is seen by some critics as being overly conformist as it does not
call for fundamental changes in the way the modern economy works and it
reduces the notions of environmental value to economic profit (Hajer, 1997). It
is questioned as whether our current economic system can become
sustainable at all (Whitehead, 2007).
For the countries in the West, the ecological modernization approach to
sustainable development has been translated into national strategies. These
are based not only on sustainability but also on the uniqueness of each
country. Denmark like other European countries has a specific and defined
National Strategy that was formulated in 2002, as mentioned in sub section
1.2.
3.3. THE CONCEPTS AND COMPONENTS OF
SUSTAINABLE URBAN DEVELOPMENT
This section examines the current approaches and conceptual frameworks
that put sustainable development of urban areas at the heart of sustainable
development in the Western context. First for purposes of academic clarity
and honesty we shall make it clear what the group means by the phrase
sustainable urban development. Sustainable urban development, in the
context of this research project, shall be deemed to mean:
...the process by which urban areas may be made more fair to all its citizens;
less demanding and harmful to the Environment; and more economically
attractive and successful through the application of the various tools of design
and management on the urban form.
These tools of design and management aim to reduce the inefficient
consumption of resources, the generation of wastes as well as the reduction of
the ecological footprint of the city as much as possible. Urban development
defines and changes the form of the city. The aim of sustainable urban
development is to lead towards sustainable urban forms. Sustainable urban
development is therefore a process that should lead to urban sustainability
(Pacione, 2005).
How to plan sustainably at the local level – a qualitative assessment
22
It is generally agreed that because of the broad nature of sustainable
development, sustainable urban development as a concept is equally
multifaceted. For many academics, sustainable urban development or urban
sustainability consists of four broad pillars: the Economic; the Ecological or
Environmental; Equity or social justice and Liveability. Of particular interest
are the conceptualizations of Campbell, Pacione and Berke et al. The
conceptualizations put forward by the three above cited academics are similar
on most points therefore not mutually-exclusive, but they do have some
differences.
For Campbell (1996) the pillars of sustainability are represented by the three
conflicting interests in the city. The three conflicting interests in the city (can
been seen in Figure 3-1) that bring urban planning and sustainable
development together as good bedfellows are economic, social, and
environmental.
The economic interest in the complex city sees the city as a location for
production, consumption, distribution and innovation. The city is seen as being
in competition with other cities, and has essentially an economic function
aimed at growth and efficiency. Its space, in this paradigm, is economic space.
The environmental interest views the city as a consumer of resources and a
producer of waste. Here the city is in competition with nature. The third
interest of social justice views the city as location of conflict over the
distribution of resources, services and opportunities. The competition seen by
this interest is within the city itself. The Planner’s Triangle thus explains how
the three interests are in conflict and how the planner is involved and where
sustainability is in the whole picture (Campbell, 1996).
Campbell (1996, p. 298) visualises these three conflicting interests in what he
calls the “Planners Triangle”.
Figure 3-1: The triangle of conflicting goals for planning, and the three associated
conflicts Planners define themselves, implicitly, by where they stand on the triangle.
The elusive ideal of sustainable development leads one to the centre. (Source:
Campbell, 1996, p. 298)
The axes on the Triangle represent the resultant complex conflict in the city
when the different interests come into play. The ‘property conflict’ between
Growth and Equity arises from the competing claims on and uses of property
between different social groups in the society. The ‘resources conflict’ arises
from the tension between economic utility of natural resources to Industrial
How to plan sustainably at the local level – a qualitative assessment
23
society and their ecological utility in the natural environment. The
‘development conflict’ stems from the interplay of the above-mentioned
property and resource conflicts. Campbell argues that overall economic
growth and efficiency; social-justice, economic opportunity and income
equality; and environmental protection are the conflicting goals of planning
while sustainable development is attained when the planner has successfully
ameliorated and negotiated the conflicts to reach some kind of middle ground
that is “green, profitable and fair.” (Campbell, 1996, p. 298). He advocates for
two basic paths towards sustainability which are the procedural path3 and the
substantive path4.
For Pacione (2005) urban sustainability comprises of five dimensions, as
Figure 3-2 shows:
1. Economic sustainability: is the ability of the local economy to sustain
itself without irreversibly damaging the environmental capital on which
it depends. The implication here is the maximising of local productivity
in relation to the sustainability of the other four dimensions.
2. Social sustainability: aims at the improvement of the quality of life of
citizens, fair access and distribution of rights over the use and
appropriation of the natural and built environment.
3. Natural sustainability: aims at the rational management of natural
resources and wastes produced by the society.
4. Physical sustainability: is concerned with the capacity of the urban built
environment to support human life and productive activities. The
“carrying capacity”5 of the city is important here
5. Political sustainability: aims at the democratization and participation of
the local civil society in urban governance.
Figure 3-2: Major dimensions of urban sustainability (Pacione, 2005, p. 608)
3
The procedural path involves: 1.conflict negotiation; 2.the redefinition of the language of the
conflict with the planner as a translator; 3. giving free rein to political pluralism to decide public
matters through voting and; 4 the development of market mechanisms to link economic and the
environmental priorities (Campbell, 1996)
4
The substantive path involves: 1.land use and design to balance nature and activities; 2.
rescaling communities according to their bioregions and; 3. using technological improvement that
leads to the reduction in the natural resources used in the complex city (Campbell, 1996)
5
Carrying capacity of the city may be defined as the limit at which the population in the city can
be maintained by their habitat (the city) without being restricted by food, water, land, disease,
predation and without compromising the city’s ability to support the population [this definition is
derived from an ecological definition of carry capacity by ecologist Charles Elton (Elton, 1927)]
How to plan sustainably at the local level – a qualitative assessment
24
There is a third and slightly different conceptualization of sustainable urban
development as prescribed by Berke et al (2006, p. 39) in what they call ‘a
Prism Model of Sustainability’ (Figure 3-3). Though they agree with the basic
tenets of conflict between the economy, environment and social justice as
brought forward by Campbell and Pacione; they urge the adoption of the pillar
of ‘liveability’ as part of the primary values of urban sustainability. Many
academics shy away from defining liveability though they advocate for its
integration into planning. Liveability expands the conceptual framework of
sustainable urban development to include the design of urban form ranging
from the micro scale of the block, street, and buildings to the macro scale of
the form of the city and metropolis and indeed the regional urban network.
Indeed the concept of liveability helps the planner realise the salience of the
Individual and his needs when planning for the populace in the sustainable
city (Hägerstrand, 1970).
There are conflicts that are represented in the Prism Model of Sustainability.
The tension between liveability and economic growth results in the Growth
Management Conflict which arises from competing beliefs in the extent to
which unmanaged urban development (as is desired by the Market) can
provide the high quality living environment as required by sustainable
development (Gordon & Richardson, 1997) favour the free Market as a
mechanism with which to achieve liveability. However liveability is a concept
of public good and the Market is not efficient in its provision of public goods.
There is therefore need for public regulation in the form of growth
management to achieve liveability.
The Green Cities Conflict results from the tension between competing beliefs
on the primacy of the natural environment versus the built environment. The
conflict is about how far the ecological system should be allowed to determine
urban form. The Gentrification Conflict arises from competing beliefs in the
preservation of poorer urban neighbourhoods for the benefit of their present
population versus their redevelopment and upgrading to attract middle- and
upper-class populations back into the dying city centre. At the heart of the
Prism, just as in Campbell’s Planner’s Triangle, lies sustainable development.
Figure 3-3: The sustainability prism illustrates the primary values of equity, economy,
ecology, and liveability (Source: Godschalk, 2004, in Berke et al, 2006 p. 40)
There are certain themes that run through the three conceptualizations of
sustainable urban development. The first one is that of the centrality of
conflict and contradiction in the complex city. Campbell (1996), Pacione
(2005) and Berke et al (2006) highlight that the different interests and
dimensions of sustainable urban development are in conflict with each other
How to plan sustainably at the local level – a qualitative assessment
25
or are sometimes contradictory, depending on the priorities of the city and
those who live in it.
The second theme is that of the justification for planning intervention. The
three authorities suggest that the role of the planner is that of balancing the
different interests and dimensions towards the achievement of the long term
planning goal of sustainable urban development. The planner must become
aware that sustainability as a concept and planning paradigm is here to stay
and that it is the planner who stands between sustainability in theory and
sustainability in practise. Another theme that emerges is the ambiguity of
sustainability as an urban development paradigm. It will differ from city to city
what sustainability is, for who and when (Satterthwaite, 1997). Because of this
ambiguity sustainability might mean so much to everybody and yet become
useless eventually because of its generic nature.
The Planner’s Triangle and the Prism Model of Sustainability show the urban
planner that there can be no sustainability without a vibrant economy; there
can be no sustainability without a functional environmental resourcebase; there can be no sustainability without compromise and consensus in
society; nor can there be sustainability without an acceptable level of comfort
for humans in their built environment i.e. liveability. The two models remind
us that planning is futuristic in nature and sustainability is related to planning
because it is about present action in relation to future harmony.
Another common theme is that of the elusiveness of sustainable urban
development (i.e. the heart of the Triangle, Circle and Prism). It is one thing to
imagine sustainability in the abstract but quite another to achieve it. In fact
the heart of the prism, triangle or circle cannot be reached directly; rather
attempts should be at reaching it indirectly and approximately (Berke et al,
2006). The concept of sustainability therefore posits the long-term planning
goal of a social-environmental system in balance (Campbell, 1996). It allows
us to calculate how far we have come to value and respect the environment
and how far we have to go to return the Environment to its integrity.
Though Campbell, Pacione and Berke et al offer useful ways in which to
conceptualize urban sustainability there are few criticisms. It is easier to
conceive abstractly how to promote sustainable urban development, but in
practice there are so many other issues that determine the feasibility of
sustainable urban development e.g. global economic trends and market
forces, the willingness of different societies to change their ways and these
issues have never be in the control of the planner.
One shortcoming of the three conceptualizations is the lack of a solid
definition, or maybe even inclusion, of the concept of liveability as it pertains
to urban planning and sustainable development. This obvious exclusion may
lead to an assumption of sustainability that does not take the comfort and
requirements of humans seriously. The lack of such a definition may in fact
lead to the proliferation of contradictory and cursory views of the Individual in
the drive towards sustainability; and may even compromise the very
principles on which sustainability is based.
The very fact that we have cited three different (though not mutually
exclusive) conceptualizations of sustainability is in itself part of the weakness
of sustainable development as a planning paradigm. Sustainability has come
to mean so many things to different sections of humanity such that it runs the
How to plan sustainably at the local level – a qualitative assessment
26
risk of losing its prescriptive power wherever and whenever it is applied. It can
thus be opposed and discarded by those not interested in pursuing the
utopian ideal of safe guarding today what future generations will need
tomorrow. Lastly the three conceptualizations seem to be overly based on
environmental determinism yet other authorities stress the need for basing
our attainment of the sustainable city on the critical principle of process
rather than prescribed concern for the form of the city (Neuman, 2005).
3.4. THE UNSUSTAINABLE URBAN FORM: URBAN
SPRAWL
As is common in most situations that present a pressing problem, a cause or
culprit has to be found, possibly to be blamed for the bad state of things.
Likewise in our problematic of trying to identify ways to pursue sustainable
urban development, we have had to ask what, if any, is the main culprit to be
blamed for the desperate situation of un-sustainability that our cities find
themselves in today. As always in cases such as these, it has proven rather
simple to find the supposed culprit. Literature abounds with commentary on
what academics call ‘an unsustainable urban form’.
The unsustainable urban form is characterized mainly by the phenomenon of
urban sprawl or ‘conventional low-density development’ (Berke et al, 2006;
Neuman, 2005). For clarity let us start at the beginning. In the 19th century
when progressive-minded industrialists like Cadbury and social reformers such
as Ebenezer Howard realised the terrible state of over-crowding and disease in
the Industrial city, there began a comprehensive movement that gave birth to
the modern urban planning profession (Hall, 2002). In an effort to combat
overcrowding and disease it was encouraged to lower densities in the city and
spread urban development to New Towns. This led to a less compact urban
form. In other words it led to urban sprawl. Unfortunately for the past three
decades ‘conventional low-density development’, because it is characterised
by urban sprawl, has been seen as the cause of the un-sustainable city
(Burchell et al, 1998).
Urban sprawl is caused by the growth in the population in the city as well as
the physical geographical expansion of the city such that it swallows
surrounding agricultural land. As a result urban sprawl has given rise to
satellite towns, suburbs, exurbs and a whole new different scale of urban
areas called mega-cities e.g. Mexico City. It should be noted as well that the
very profession (urban planning) that now seeks to abate urban sprawl also
had a hand in enabling and supporting it through “its tools, institutions,
processes and knowledge.” (Neuman, 2005, p. 15). In the West the cause of
urban sprawl has been identified as an interplay of several factors i.e. the
availability of cheap open land outside the city, advances in transportation,
the mass production of housing, the rise of the real estate developer, the
availability of capital to buy property and the desire by the individual for their
own home with a backyard. It could be said that urban sprawl at least in the
American context has been the result of sustained economic growth (Berke et
al, 2006).
How to plan sustainably at the local level – a qualitative assessment
27
Urban sprawl has several characteristics, and these are:
1. Low residential density
2. Unlimited outward extension of new development
3. Spatial segregation of different types of land uses through zoning
4. Leapfrog development
5. No centralized ownership of land or planning of land development
6. All transport dominated by privately owned motor vehicles
7. Fragmentation of governance authority of land uses among many local
governments
8. Great varieties in the fiscal capacity of local governments
9. Widespread commercial strip development along major roadways
10. Major reliance on a filtering process to provide housing for low income
households
(Source: Burchell et al, 1998)
Urban sprawl has been blamed for making cities unsustainable for several
reasons. First, urban sprawl has led to high land consumption rates that lead
to the loss of prime agricultural land for use in urban development. As it
expands, the city swallows the land surrounding it. Secondly, the low density
development in urban areas leads to increased costs as there is an increased
need for public infrastructure provision to each new area. Urban sprawl
contributes to un-sustainability because it leads to the inefficient and
unsustainable consumption of resources like fuel as it deepens the
dependency on the car as a means of individual transport. This not only
increases pollution and vehicles miles travelled but it also traps the concerned
individuals into high consumption patterns as well (Satterthwaite, 1997).
Urban sprawl also leads to the decay of the inner city along with increased
social inequalities as it encourages the relocation of the middle- and upperclasses from the inner city to the suburbs that are further from the downtown
and more spacious. This is what is called the ‘cult of domesticity’ (Walker,
1981 in Haughton & Hunter, 1996, p. 93). Urban sprawl is seen as the physical
manifestation of the social inequity that is caused by the wealthy people’s
demands for increased spatial and social insulation (Davis, 1991).
Low-density urban development is environmentally undesirable for other
reasons as well. It has high storm water pollution relative to high-density
areas. It also leads to increased runoff of storm water and of petroleum and
other deposits due to the increased area of paved and built-on surfaces. There
is increased energy usage and air pollution caused by decrease in viability of
public transport, walking and cycling. Energy consumption is increased in the
single-storey, detached developments, because of poor thermal qualities
relative to more compact housing forms (Haughton & Hunter, 1996).
However not everyone is convinced that low-density urban development is
unsustainable. Gordon P. and Richardson H.W. (1997) assert that not all urban
sprawl is unattractive, lazy and undisciplined. Gordon and Richardson assert
that planners should take into consideration that consumers show strong
preferences for suburban living. Trying to limit urban sprawl could be
tantamount to infringing on consumers’ sovereignty. The Market should be left
to allocate urban space to those who demand it where they want it (Gordon &
How to plan sustainably at the local level – a qualitative assessment
28
Richardson, 1997). Other authors argue that suburbs are not necessarily bad
and it is over-simplification to say they are (Oliver et al, 1981). In fact some
conclude that low-density urban forms may contribute to improved family life
(Stretton, 1989).
Some authorities question the liveability of high density development instead
of the conventional low-density urban form. Though urban sprawl is seen as
wasteful perhaps it provides a more liveable urban form at least in the
direction of the personal preferences of the citizens as it is less crowded. Also
the inefficiency of low density development has been challenged since the link
between higher density developments and reduced vehicle-miles-travelled
(and reduced energy consumption by extension) remains unclear and is at
best equivocal (Neuman, 2005). Suburbanization which reduces congestion
has had little or benign traffic consequences (Gordon & Richardson, 1997).
Most of all there is doubt over the feasibility or desirability of attempting to
reverse existing urban development trends of low density urban development.
3.5. SUSTAINABLE URBAN FORMS
The main focus of sustainable development in the Western context is the
development of a sustainable city. Sustainable forms of development for cities
are seen as not only desirable but necessary. It is here that the question of
urban form and design becomes important. This is because space in itself
does not determine the sustainability of cities but rather it is the configuration
of the spatial relationships in the city that does (Pile et al, 1999). Important
gains in sustainable development are possible and they are often a result of
an alternative way of urban planning and design (Eds Devuyst et al, 2001).
Sustainable and more liveable urban forms have been central to planning
since the 19th century. Several planning traditions have emerged that have
attempted to organise the city in such a way as to make it more liveable.
Some of these traditions are: the Garden City of Ebenezer Howard, the
Radiant City by Le Corbusier, the City Beautiful Movement by Daniel Burnham
and the Decentrist Movement among others (Jacobs, 1961).
However Jane Jacobs (1961) notes that though these movements did much to
shape urban planning, they also contributed to the current crisis that cities are
facing today. According to Jacobs these movements lead to the planner being
preoccupied with zoning, greening and top-down approaches to city planning.
The urban forms that have resulted from the use of these techniques
described by the movements have lead to “amputated city areas”. Planning
traditions have led to planners being taught about how cities ‘ought’ to work
without examining how cities ‘do’ work. For Jacobs it is reality and its trends
that should shape planning theory not the other way round.
Urban planning and design can make a vast difference in the sustainability of
a city and it is, possibly, what makes or breaks the success of sustainable
development in the Western context. Academics like Jane Jacobs (1961), Jan
Gehl (1971) and Kevin Lynch (1981) have examined the planning and design
of cities and their neighbourhoods. In all their analyses it emerged that the
role of urban planning in sustainable development should be taken very
seriously (Eds Devuyst et al, 2001, p. 27). Sustainable urban development on
an operational level may be defined as ‘a built environment that operates in
How to plan sustainably at the local level – a qualitative assessment
29
harmony with the ecosystems on which it depends.’ It is a very ambiguous
term that represents an aspiration that, attainable or not, is a desirable goal
(White in Eds Devuyst et al, 2001, p. 53).
Sustainable urban development when narrowed down is concerned with the
sustainability of the urban form. According to Jabareen (Jabareen, 2006, p. 38)
“[…] urban form directly affects habitat, ecosystems, endangered
species, and water quality through land consumption, habitat
fragmentation, and replacement of natural cover with impervious
surfaces. In addition, urban form affects travel behaviour, which, in
turn, affects air quality; premature loss of farmland, wetlands, and
open space; soil pollution and contamination; global climate; and
noise.”
Urban form is defined as “the spatial pattern of the large, inert, permanent
physical objects in a city”. (Lynch, 1981, p. 47) Urban form may also be
viewed as the
“...spatial arrangement of persons doing things, the resulting spatial
flows of persons, goods and information, and the physical features
which modify space in some way significant to those actions including
enclosures, surfaces, channels, ambiences and objects [...] the
description must include the cyclical and secular changes in those
spatial distributions, the control of space and the perception of it. The
last two, of course are raids into the domains of social institutions and
mental life.” (Kevin L. 1981 in Stein, 1995 p. 186)
In an effort towards achieving the sustainable urban form, scholars and
planners have attempted to work out concepts of sustainable development
that are most relevant to the complex cities of today. However there is no
agreement among them upon the right way toward sustainability. It has also
been noted that most concepts concerning urban sustainability focus on
environmental aspects and neglecting the social and economic aspects.
Despite this shortcoming several concepts of urban planning and design have
been emphasized that are considered to be the ‘bricks’ of sustainable urban
development. These concepts should enable the analysis and comparison of
the different approaches to sustainable urban development.
3.5.1. Approaches towards sustainable urban
form
3.5.1.1. Neotraditional Development
The Neotraditional Development aims to offer a solution for inner-city decline.
The concept is based on traditional – European – urban structures. It combines
the elements of high density, mixed use of land, functioning public transport
and diversity. Beneath these mainly ecological aspects, the Neotraditional
Development also takes in account social needs. It fosters the social
interactions between the inhabitants and tries to improve the corporate
feeling. Even so the plans are very ambitious some scholars claim that the
realised Neotraditional cities resemble more suburban than city structures
(Jabareen, 2006).
How to plan sustainably at the local level – a qualitative assessment
30
3.5.1.2. Urban Containment
The recognition of the costs of urban sprawl prompted policymakers the world
over to impose geographical constraints on urban growth through urban
containment policies. Urban containment prevents outward expansion of the
urban field and forces the development market to look inward. Urban
containment use at least three tools to shape ‘metropole’ growth i.e. 1.
Greenbelts, 2. Urban growth boundaries and 3. Urban service areas. The
urban containment approach uses both urban design and regulatory measures
to ensure a more sustainable urban form. Examples of policies
“[...] include the enactment of regulatory urban growth boundaries,
limiting utility extensions to outlying areas, delineation and acquisition
of greenbelts, controls on pattern and density of development,
restricting new residential development in agricultural areas, pacing
new development to match development of new infrastructure,
restricting the numbers of new residential permits issued, land
preservation programs, tax incentives, and a variety of other
measures” (Jabareen, 2006, p. 44).
3.5.1.3. Compact City
The compact city is characterised by high-density, mixed use and by a clear
boundary between the urban and the rural area. The approach is favoured by
many scholars and also by the European Union, as it integrates many aspects
that are claimed to lead towards sustainability, through encouraging re-use of
urban land, a dense built environment, intensification of activities and diverse
and efficient transport (Pile et al, 1999 ; Jabareen, 2006).
3.5.1.4. New Urbanism
New urbanism is an urban design movement that is focused on built
environments designed to counter the effects of low density urban sprawl. It is
more architecturally-prescriptive as it specifies physical layouts of
communities where design, scale, land use mix and street-network elements
dominate. The Congress for the New Urbanism charter of 1996 emphasizes
the importance of a coherent and supportive physical framework for economic
vitality, community stability and environmental health (Berke et al, 2006).
Though the spatial form of the city is important in achieving sustainability
some scholars argue that it is not “the physical shape of the city and its built
environment that is important; it is how the urban society is organized and
managed that counts most”. Similarly Talen and Ellis (2002, in Jabareen, 2006,
p. 47) argue that “social, economic, and cultural variables are far more
important in determining the good city than any choice of spatial
arrangements.” Despite this urban form plays a critical role in determining the
sustainable city.
How to plan sustainably at the local level – a qualitative assessment
31
3.6. MEASUREMENTS OF SUSTAINABLE URBAN
FORM – ACCORDING TO THE GROUP
After the introduction to theory the chosen elements will be described in order
to show different perspectives there can be to an element depending on in
which context it is used.
The Group has decided on several of its own measurements by which the
sustainability of urban form can be analyzed. These measurements fall under
four basic groups off physical, functional, perceptive and environmental
elements. Of these measurements four will emphasized more than the others
as they are the measurements that have been chosen to base our framework
of analysis of the project on. These four are namely density, mixed-land use,
green spaces and liveability. The measurements are chosen on the basis of
the Danish National Strategy and the paper of the Minister of Environment in
Denmark combined with the theory described above. These measurements
help to shape the form of the city to some extent. Chapter 1 highlights what
the focus should be on in current Danish urban planning practice in order to
deal with the problems of urban development today.
3.6.1. Physical elements
Physical elements are seen as elements that are quite tangible as they are
concerned with the physical fabric or structure of the city. These are also
some of the elements that have been suggested to a high degree in order to
lower the CO2 emissions e.g. transport and low energy buildings.
3.6.1.1. Low energy buildings
“Energy consumed to construct and operate buildings accounts for half of
Denmark’s total energy consumption, while materials used for buildings and
facilities comprise the greater part of the consumption of Danish raw
materials“ (The Danish Government, 2002, p. 68).
This makes it very clear how important energy efficient housing for achieving
sustainability. When the talk is about energy efficient buildings the distinction
between energy consumption during the construction period and during the
operation or maintenance period has to be made. In order to achieve a
sustainable building both phases have to be regarded.
Moughtin (Moughtin & Shirley, 2005) argues that five principles have to be
regarded when designing a sustainable building:
1. Conservation of existing building or at least the recycling and reuse of
the building materials
2. Utilisation of local or regional building materials in order to shorten
transport ways
3. Avoidance of environmentally damaging materials
4. Adaptation of buildings to the local climatic preconditions (solar panels
system, geothermal-energy)
5. Flexible design (use of the building should be able to evolve to avoid
redundancy)
How to plan sustainably at the local level – a qualitative assessment
32
Not only are the materials used relevant for the overall energy consumption.
The building type has also an important impact on the energy consumption.
Low density houses consume usually more energy than high density buildings
– as the energy wasted by one building can be used by another building
(Jenks, 1996). Passive solar design optimises solar gain and improves microclimatic conditions. The use of particular materials can lead to a further saving
of energy (Pacione, 2005).
3.6.1.2. Transport
Scholars suggest that the form of
and cycle friendly. The physical
encourage people to use public
However there is no scientific proof
the sustainable city should be pedestrian
structure and function of cities should
transport instead of their private cars.
for these assumptions.
“The form of our cities reflects, to a large extent, the transport technologies
that were dominant at different stages of their development.” (Barrett, 1996,
p. 171 in Jabareen, 2006, p. 40). In the cities of today the dominance of the
car is clearly visible. The car, as Pile (1999) argues, was not the cause but a
precondition for many developments which are seen as urban problems like
urban sprawl or the decline of inner cities.
The reduction of traffic is one of the main key elements on the way to a
sustainable city. To reach this aim land use patterns have to be changed and
good public transport has to be provided. Sustainable urban form should –
according to the European Commission – lead to reduction of mobility. They
advocate compact urban forms, mixed land use and high density. “Spatial
proximity would also encourage the economic, social, cultural and physical
regeneration of declining city centres.” (Pile et al, 1999, p. 280).
But the change of mobility requires the right policies which do not only include
the change of land use patterns but which have also influence on the life style
(Pile et al, 1999). Social factors like age, gender, income and lifestyle – are
factors which nowadays may have an even bigger impact on the travel mode
than the urban structure (Næss, 2006).
3.6.1.3. Compactness
Compactness is argued to be one of the most important characteristics to
achieve sustainability. Through a compact design the rural area can be
preserved. Compactness has a positive impact on the energy consumption,
leading to the reduction of greenhouse gas and the minimisation of transport
ways. The European Commission’s Green Paper on the Urban Environment
(1990) advocated for cities that are increasingly compact; where spatial
proximity would encourage economic, cultural, social and physical
regeneration of declining city centres (Pile et al, 1999; Jabareen, 2006).
However critics have questioned the usefulness of the concept of
compactness citing lack of convincing evidence that compactness is
achievable or even desirable (Gordon & Richardson, 1997).
How to plan sustainably at the local level – a qualitative assessment
33
3.6.1.4. Density
Given that urban sprawl leads to an unsustainable urban form, density is the
first idea that comes in people’s mind when thinking about alternatives, to
contain urban sprawl. The density has been an indicator which is subject to
great attention and controversial debates as a way of achieving urban
sustainability of today’s cities.
Definition for density (residential density)
First of all, density has several definitions as Arza Churchman highlighted in
this article aptly named Disentangling the Concept of Density (Churchman,
1999). Among all of the definitions and distinctions he proposes, we propose,
in this report, to refer to residential density when the general criterion of
density is used. Residential density is defined as “the number of dwelling units
per given area” (Churchman, 1999, p. 390). Even if the residential density is
closely linked with the population density (by the average number of
inhabitants per dwelling unit), from the planner’s point of view, density seems
to be more a question of buildings than of population. Indeed, most of the
local master plans in Denmark and Europe have some density requirements in
terms of square meter built up, e.g. in terms of building restrictions.
A controversial criterion to achieve urban sustainability
It is easily comprehensible that an increase of the density can be a good
answer to enable the growth of population in the cities and in the same time
limit the sprawl of urbanized areas to the surrounding agricultural areas.
Density can be seen as a tool to reduce the ecological footprint of the cities.
But this straightforward understanding might not take into consideration the
complexity of today’s cities. Indeed, researchers don’t agree on the relation
between high residential density and the goal of a more sustainable city for
several reasons.
High density benefits
One of the benefits of increasing the densification in a delimited urban area
rather than fall into the urban sprawl pattern, is that it obviously enables the
city to make some economies of scale (Haughton & Hunter, 1996) in terms of
infrastructures (public transportation, highways, street lighting, etc...) and
networks (electricity cable, internet, drinking water grid and sewage grid,
etc...). For instance in Amsterdam, it was proposed to apply the “upper city”
principle which consists of investing in flat roofs. By doing that, it enable
further vertical construction if needed as a response to increase the density of
the city without decrease the green area and open space (Hulshof, 2005).
How to plan sustainably at the local level – a qualitative assessment
34
Among the other benefits of increasing the urban residential density, the work
of Newman and Kentworthy in 1999 has underlined a strong correlation
between the energy consumption used for the private transportation and the
density of certain cities as Figure 3-4 shows. Citizens living in a highly dense
city like Hong-Kong and Seoul consume considerably less energy for their
private commuting than citizens living in the highly spread out cities like Los
Angeles or Houston.
Figure 3-4: Energy use per capital in private passenger travel versus urban density in
global cities 1990 (Source: Newman and Kentworthy, 1990).
It can also be argued that the study by Newman and Kentworthy reflects the
different social and cultural patterns of the world’s population. Indeed, Asian
countries appear to be highly dense with the lowest energy consumption per
capita for transportation while Asia is well known to use mainly a non
motorized mean of transportation like the rickshaw, bicycles and walking. On
the other hand, cities with high energy consumption for private transportation
are mainly American cities, where both the car ownership as a strong social
pattern and the low-cost of gas urge American to use their cars. European
countries are halfway between these two opposite patterns.
Nevertheless this seemingly positive relationship is contested and might not
be as simple as described previously. Indeed, high density might not be the
only factor that could act in favour of a decreasing of energy used for
transportation. Breheny et al. (1998) claim that high density might not enable
to decrease energy used in transportation. This means that even if density is
increased it does not necessarily foster the citizens to use alternative means
of transportation which are less energy-consuming such as walking, biking or
public transportation. Handy et al. (2002) also point out the lack of relation
between the form of the city and the behaviour of its citizens. In the same
spirit, “Simmonds and Coombe found that a strategy of compaction from the
How to plan sustainably at the local level – a qualitative assessment
35
Bristol area would have only a minor effect on traffic. There are a number of
reasons for this, including the fact that proximity to a desired facility is only a
weak indicator of people’s choice of travel mode. More attention should also
be paid to the relationship between proximity and mode of travel. Most
authors assert that people will make more trips on foot or by bicycle, yet other
research evidence counters this.” (Williams et al, 2000, pp. 347-355)
In spite of these several explanations, most of the researchers and observers
agree with the work of Newman and Kenworthy by saying that a more dense
and compact city is less energy consuming than conventional low-density
development.
High density versus liveability
For some scholars high density is synonymous with overcrowding which
reduces amenity significantly (Blowers, 1994). Whereas the focus of this part
is not put on the sociological features, the main counterargument against a
high-density living comes up with sociological and cultural patterns. Some
studies, carried on a long time ago, reveal that high-density provokes
negative physiological and psychological effects like stress (Simmel, [1903]
1950; Wirth, 1938 in Neuman, 2005), anti-social behaviour (Michelson, 1970)
or at least long social distance. “Typically, our physical contacts are close but
our social contacts are distant” (Wirth, 1938, p. 14).
The main counterargument against a high density is mostly relevant to social
considerations which intervene for a great part in the perceived liveability of
an area.
The acceptable density for a sustainable urban form
Density is very relative and the ideal density varies from author to author (and
from organization to organization), therefore it is subject to fierce debate.
Some scholars advocate for a density of 50 dwellings per acre (120
dwellings/hectare) for residential areas to achieve some vitality of place;
(Montgomery, 1998). What is sure is that high density does not always mean
high-rise building and the opposite is true as well. “High density does not
necessarily equate to overcrowding, there being a world of difference between
high-density living in high-rise residential blocks with low numbers of people
per room, and overcrowding in low-rise shanty town developments, with high
numbers of people per room” (Haughton & Hunter, 1996, p. 82). Therefore
urban sustainability through a high density can be reached without necessarily
getting a high city skyline made of skyscrapers which do not fit in our
European context. But even if Arza Churchman argues that the concept of
density is “neutral” (Churchman, 1999, p. 389), for most of the people density
is not positively perceived and appears rather as an undesirable phenomenon.
Density, for many, presumably refers to the post-war European social housing
period and the construction of high-raise blocks building that generate some
social problems nowadays. These specific areas, which can be considered by
certain authors as ghettos, do understandably not convey a good image of the
high residential density. This fact urges authors and urban planners to find
another term to exemplify an increase of density for sustainable purposes:
qualified density or acceptable density according to the terms used by
Klaus Zillich (unpublished, appendix E), a German architect and urban
How to plan sustainably at the local level – a qualitative assessment
36
planner. That means that the indicator of density must be adapted to the
surrounding and the context. For instance, the density considered as normal
in cities like Shangaï are not the same in an European context, even in the
biggest European cities. Through the above terminology, density, which is a
quantitative tool of measure, becomes a more qualitative tool for
measurement.
Density and particularly high density is not exclusive parameters that
intervene in order to shape the urban form towards a more sustainable way.
The mixed land uses is another important indicator that can reduce, such as
high density, the importance of the private car trip.
3.6.2. Functional elements
These elements have to do with the satisfaction of the populations needs on a
very local scale. These elements are aspects that everybody accounts on an
everyday basis, but not necessarily thinks about. An average inhabitant is not
able to formulate that the degree of mixed land use in an area is too low, but
will probably notice that it is impossible to gratify his or her needs within an
urban area.
3.6.2.1. Mixed land use
Densification is a good way to use land more efficiently but is not sufficient on
its own. Mixing the land uses is another key requirement to achieve the goal
of a sustainable urban form. In the battle for urban sustainability through
decreasing the dependency on the private car, density and mixed land uses
are complementary; one cannot effectively work without the other. “The
likelihood of non-auto commuting increase significantly as neighbourhood
densities rise and where there are shops and other non residential activities in
the immediate neighbourhood” (Cervero, 1996, p. 375).
From exclusionary zoning...
Mixed land use is the antithesis of zoning land use management. Zoning
consists in separating the different functions of land uses: industrial area,
residential area, retailing shops area, etc. The roots can be found during the
Industrial Revolution. This period required enlarging the scale of industries
and factories that urges them to set away from the city where there were
larger plots available. Consequently it involved a separation between place of
production and consumption as well as workplace and labour dwellings that
have never been experienced before (Walker, 1981 in Haughton & Hunter,
1996). As a result, it has changed “dramatically the layout of the city and the
flows of goods and workers across the urban space. [...] Physically, socially
and economically, the city became more internally divided” (Haughton &
Hunter, 1996, p. 93).
Zoning was applied at a higher extent with the advent of car ownership and
the development of transportation infrastructure that considerably improved
the mobility. Citizens could take advantage of a high quality of living provided
by an exclusively residential area (quietness, healthier air,) and in the same
time they could reach all of the facilities. What it shown is that it would be
How to plan sustainably at the local level – a qualitative assessment
37
unfair to put the all blame only on the urban planner since zoning was
fostered and suited for many businesses, land developers, dwellers for their
economic, logistic interests or their quality of life (Haughton & Hunter, 1996).
Functional zoning has been the theory and the tool of land use planning
practise, which was used everywhere in Europe as well as in North America
throughout the twentieth century.
Jane Jacobs was the first in 1961 to criticise mono-functional zoning and largegrained city by emphasizing the poor aesthetic of urban form that such a land
use practise produces. After her, some authors did not hesitate to qualify the
zoning practise as “land mismanagement” (Procos, 1976, p. 13). The logical
panacea to mono-functional zoning might be mixed land uses.
...To mixed land uses
Most of the researchers, scholars, governmental policy commitment agree by
saying that zoning is a very “automobile-oriented land use practice” that does
not contribute to the sustainable urban development (Minister's Paper, 2008).
On the contrary, mixed land uses and well fine-grained cities are seen as a
way to decrease the dependency on the car by moving jobs, shops, services
and leisure facilities closer to citizens’ dwellings. “It is also argued that a city
with a fine grain of land use, rather than the homogeneous zones of
residential commercial or industrial uses, common in modern metropolitan
areas, is more likely to reduce the need for travel” (Moughtin & Shirley, 2005,
p. 193). A reasonable close proximity between citizens’ needs and facilities
should encourage the use of alternative modes of transport like bike, walking
and public transportation (Thorne & Filmer-Sankey, 2003). Indeed, it has been
proved that “if retail shops are within 300 feet [~91 m], or several city blocks,
from a dwelling unit, workers are more likely to commute by transit, foot or
bicycle. Beyond this distance, however, mixed use activities appear to induce
auto-commuting” (Cervero, 1996, p. 375).
However care should be taken not to mix whatever activities in the same area
but those which are compatible with each other. “It will be important not to
allow bad neighbours (such as night clubs) to mix with residential apartments”
(Montgomery, 1998, p. 105). It is also argued that reliable data is difficult to
find especially to see how land uses affect non-work trip behaviour (Cervero,
1996).
According to the Jabareen’s definition of mixed land uses, it can be defined as
“the diversity of functional land uses such as residential, commercial,
industrial, institutional, and those related to transportation” (Jabareen, 2006,
p. 41). Nevertheless taking into consideration what it has been previously
quoted in this report mixed land uses are defined as:
How to plan sustainably at the local level – a qualitative assessment
38
...compatible diversity of functional land uses such as residential, commercial,
institutional, and leisure that are located in a reasonable distance each other
or otherwise close to a public transportation station in order to encourage nonmotorized transportation.
Besides for the environmental purposes, a mix of land uses is also advocated
for contributing to the “urban vitality” (Jacobs, 1961; Montgomery, 1998).
According to Montgomery’s example of City of London, “places which fail in
urban vitality [...] do so not because of a lack of people but because of
insufficient mixture of primary uses concentrated into particular hours of the
day” (Montgomery, 1998, p. 104). A heterogeneous zoning can also reduce
the feeling of insecurity in some of the public realms as well. “Mixed use of
space can [...] enhance security in public places for disadvantaged groups”
(Friends of the Earth, 1994, p. 77). Both these two effects can be considered
useful in a way to achieve, or at least, enhance the liveability of the area.
In addition Montgomery has also expanded the principle of horizontally mixed
land uses further by advocating for “vertical zoning”: “Where possible,
residential units, shops, and even offices would be accommodated within city
blocks and within building blocks” which is visualized in Figure 3-5
(Montgomery, 1998, p. 105).
Figure 3-5: Designing a good street: vertical and horizontal grain zoning
(Montgomery, 1998, p. 110)
3.6.2.2. Diversity
The term diversity is very similar to mixed land use, but it implies not only the
functional aspects of a city but the unique – architectural - history of the city,
the diverse characters - and their needs - living in the city and the economic
differences within the city (Jabareen, 2006). Jacobs (1961) argues that ‘cities
need a most intricate and closely-grained diversity of uses that give each
other constant mutual support, both economically and socially. Components of
diversity must differ enormously but supplement each other in concrete ways.’
There is also a call for diversity in the uses within buildings e.g. an apartment
building that also houses a restaurant or library.
Diversity helps make a successful urban place by making planning invisible
and the resultant vibrancy of a place looks as if it took place on its own
without being planned (Sherman, 1988 in Montgomery, 1998). Diversity for
Jacobs is very closely linked with the economic effects of time, the decrease
and increase of land value. “A city´s very structure consists of mixtures of
How to plan sustainably at the local level – a qualitative assessment
39
uses, and we get the closest to its structural secrets when we deal with the
conditions that generate diversity.” (Jacobs, 1961, p. 18).
3.6.3. Perceptive elements
Perceptive elements are elements that change from one person to another,
the importance of one of these elements can be high to one in order to locate
his or her business in an area but to his neighbour this element can be
irrelevant. The historical significance of one area can be important to a
teacher in history but less important to a high school student.
3.6.3.1. History
The term history in the context of a city refers to the preservation of places
and buildings that have historical value to the city. At one point or the other,
most cities go through some kind of renovation. Pacione (2005, p. 670)
defines a heritage area as an “historic elements of city structure that have
been preserved through renovation or conversion to new use”. When place go
through a renovation or conversion it is crucial to have the history of the place
in mind as the history is the remembered record of the past. Haughton and
Hunter (Haughton & Hunter, 1996, p. 113) notice that “the [urban] design
should be locally distinctive, building on local context, respecting historical
narrative within the urban fabric.”
3.6.3.2. Liveability
The concept of liveability is one of great relevance if the design changes we
institute as planners are to remain viable and indeed be of any use in making
the city sustainable. Liveability highlights the importance of the Individual to
the planner. Up to now planning has been concerned with people as an
aggregate and thus based its assumptions on that yet the users and
inhabitants of the cities we build are essentially individuals who have the last
say, whether literally or by silent action, on the success of any urban space
and place.
A great variety of definitions of liv(e)ability are encountered in the literature.
First, authors still do not agree on the way of writing it: livability or liveability.
No literature was found to account for the blurred existing in the spelling,
therefore the group decided to write it, liveability.
Secondly, as a result, there is not a consensus of one concept of liveability. In
the article by Irene van Kamp (Van Kamp et al, 2003, p. 6) the different terms
often associated with livability, are underlined.
“Concepts as livability, living quality, living environment, quality of
place, residential-perception and –satisfaction, the evaluation of the
residential and living environment, quality of life and sustainability do
overlap, and are often used as synonyms but every so often are
contrasted.” (Van Kamp et al, 2003, p. 6)
This reflects the broad diversity of approaches and concepts underlying
behind the term liveability.
How to plan sustainably at the local level – a qualitative assessment
40
Among the different definitions that Van Kamp I. et al (2003) compile in their
article, the main differences come from:
- Scale-level (individual versus aggregate)
- The manner in which the person-environment relation is approached
(human ecology, independent entities, transactional approaches)
- Referral to objective attributes and subjective perceptions
- Determinants or indicators (causality)
- Constant or variable (in place, time, person and culture)
Pacione defines urban liveability as:
“…a relative term whose precise meaning depends on the place, time
and purpose of assessment and on the value system of assessor. In
contrast to an objective definition of urban environmental quality, this
view contends that quality is not an attribute inherent in the
environment but a behavior-related function of the interaction of
environmental characteristics and person characteristics.” (Pacione,
2005, p. 675).
Liveability is closely linked to the measurement previously exemplified.
Indeed, all of them (density, mixed land uses and green spaces) are often
viewed, by many Municipalities, as a way to materialize urban liveability.
“Thus, 1000 Friends (a self-styled land-use planning watchdog group called
“1000 Friends of Oregon” of Portland) promised, increased densities and landuse controls would allow the region to grow while maintaining its livability and
minimizing congestion.” (O’Toole, 2001, p. 29) / “neighborhood parks and
greenways […] are intended to improve urban livability” (Berke & Manta
Conroy, 2000, p. 29) But, according to I. van Kamp et al., these three criteria
are not enough to define urban liveability. For Pacione, for instance, “in order
to attain the goal of a liveable city, a wide range of social, economic and
physical factors must be satisfied.” (Pacione, 2005, p. 418). Among this “wide
range of factors” Neuman, like Pacione, considers that “livability is not only a
matter of urban form, it is also a matter of personal preference.” (Neuman,
2005, p. 16)
In this project, urban liveability is defined as:
…the ability of an area, neighbourhood or city to be lived in by preference of
people at any one given instant. This means that urban sustainability requires
citizens’ participation and feedback in the process.
Through this definition we want to emphasise that liveability is a safeguard
criterion that intends to ensure that planning is done first for the citizens
themselves and then for other purposes. The fact that liveability concerns the
question “who are we planning for?”, this criteria can be seen as a crucial
“sub-criteria” for each of the criteria exemplified so far. It ensures that people
are willing to live in the area, neighborhood and/or city that are designed for
them. A sustainable urban design is useless if it does not win adherence of the
citizens. In case of a lack of achieving liveability, the design can be considered
as unsustainable in a sense that it does not win the citizen’s favor. For
instance, concerning the tricky dilemma that fuels the density criteria
How to plan sustainably at the local level – a qualitative assessment
41
(environmental density which is negatively perceived), “urban designers have
cautioned that density without livability could return us to the slums of the
prewar era.” (Audirac et al, 1990, p. 477). Consequently, liveability is also a
key factor, even through the other measurements previously defined, in
attaining the urban sustainability. Liveability could be said to be the ultimate
test of the true sustainability of a place (Hägerstrand, 1970).
3.6.3.3. Uniqueness
As the history is part of a city and in some instances it is what defines the city,
it is fair to say that every city is unique on it own terms. The uniqueness of a
place helps to give those who live in it a sense of ownership and identity.
When citizens identify with a place they are more likely to preserve it and use
it in a sustainable manner. But uniqueness also means that solutions for
problems in a city have to be found in relevance to each city individually. An
approach towards a problem might work in one city but it has to be adapted to
the changed circumstances when it is applied in another.
3.6.4. Environmental elements
Environmental elements are tangible and can be seen on a different level
depending on how each inhabitant perceive his or her surroundings. To some
a tree is a green space to others a football field is a green space and to others
again a national park can be perceived as a green space.
3.6.4.1. Green Spaces
Greening is probably one of the first aspects associated with urban
sustainability. Public green open spaces are not merely enviable for their
greenery aesthetic assets but also because they contribute to the social and
ecological functions in urban environments. “There is an increasing
recognition of the part that properly functioning ecosystems play in improving
both urban environments and people’s quality of life.” (Moughtin & Shirley,
2005, p. 78).
According to the greenspace Scotland, an independent charitable company
supported by Scottish Government, green spaces depict “the 'green lungs' of
our towns and cities contributing to improving people's physical and mental
health” and complete the definition by giving the main functions that a green
space intends generally to fulfil “providing places for informal recreation walking, cycling, sitting, socialising and children's play - and 'breathing
spaces' to take time out from the stresses of modern life. They [green spaces]
bring the countryside into our towns and cities, and make it accessible from
our 'backdoors'” (Greenspace Scotland, 2008).
To sum up, green spaces are seen as “multi-functional and (...) used by many
different people for many different things.” Nevertheless, one main function
seems to be forgotten in this definition very much urban citizens’ welfare
oriented: the preservation of the natural area with all of the assets that are
linked with it.
How to plan sustainably at the local level – a qualitative assessment
42
Including this dimension, green spaces constitute in the same time:
- Flood defence
- Improvement of air quality
- Providing shelter and shade
- Preservation of wildlife habitats i.e. to allow biodiversity (fauna and flora)
by creating or at least preserving a distinctive range of wildlife habitats is
seen by some authors as a “necessity rather than a nicety” (Haughton &
Hunter, 1996, p. 212).
Moreover, specifically in the urban environment, green areas (such as parks)
help to re-establish better local hydrological processes by ensuring more
permeable surfaces (as the opposite of impermeable surfaces caused by
urbanisation). “Urbanisation changes the way in which fresh water is stored
and transported at or near the ground surface. Such changes have important
implications for urban water supply, waste-water disposal and water pollution”
(Haughton & Hunter, 1996, p. 165). More permeability within the urban area
would ensure a better replenishment of soil water and groundwater.
Thereby, green spaces can be split into two different interests:
- either human-oriented to ensure amenity and protect the people and
property (flood, etc ...)
- or environmentally-oriented for conservation reasons (natural reserve park
for instance) (Moughtin & Shirley, 2005; Berke et al, 2006).
In this project, green space is defined as:
… a natural and multi-functional area that brings nature into the city. It is
designed to fulfill both environmental and social needs.
Although it does not fit in this classification, another sizeable asset that urges
cities to foster the green open space areas in the urban environment is that
they “give imageability to a town or city” (Berke et al, 2006, p. 327). Pacione
emphasizes that the term ‘imageability’ was used by Lynch “to describe the
degree to which a city is visibly legible or evokes a strong image in any
observer’s mind.” (Pacione, 2005, p. 670) Greening, in conjunction with other
concepts of design, helps give a sense of place and vitality (Berke et al, 2006).
Whereas most of the criteria defined to achieve sustainability in urban context
are controversial, nowadays almost everyone validates the legitimacy of
green spaces in the urban area. The discussion is currently more about the
compatibility between the different functions of green urban areas because
the requirements are different according to the functions that the green area
is going to serve. There are some articles that also highlight the “planning
dilemma” which should allow both to create green areas satisfying “social
security” and “biodiversity maintenance” (Sandström et al, 2005).
Eventually, at a city or municipality scale, green areas can be listed as having
a function of shaping the urban form and managing its growth. It is the role of
the green belt (Berke et al, 2006) to serve as a boundary for urban sprawl
thereby effectively encouraging urban containment (Jabareen, 2006). Green
belt is defined as “an area of open, low-density land use around an existing
city where further development is strictly controlled by planning policy.”
(Pacione, 2005, p. 670).
How to plan sustainably at the local level – a qualitative assessment
43
3.6.4.2. Recycling
The material and energy flows to the city are steadily increasing and enlarging
the problems of pollution and management, as the flow is usually following in
linear paths. (Newman, 1999) These flows need to be changed into circular
flows (Frey, 1999). This means that the emerging waste has to be seen as an
environmental and economical potential. (Jacobs, 1969 in Rudin & Falk, 1999)
The domestic and commercial waste has to be implemented in a circular
system and needs to be recycled. Biomass technologies can turn waste into
power and generating heat and energy (Pacione, 2005). Already used
materials (glass, paper aluminium, clothes, furniture, etc.) can be the used
instead of raw material for the production of new goods. Important for a well
functioning recycling system is that the system is fitted to the people using it,
because recycling is today a mainly a mid class concern (Rudlin & Falk, 1999).
Recycling was the last of the environmental elements that will be described in
this report a thereby the last of all the elements which we will reflect on.
Below there is a summarization of the measurements described theoretically
in Table 3-1. The measurements mentioned in the Danish National Strategy
and the Minister’s Paper, appendix A, are also visualized.
Table 3-1: Summary of our own measurements (Source: UPM0703, 2008)
Theory
(Chapter 3)
Danish National
Strategy and
Minister’s Paper
(Chapter 1)
Density
X
X
Compactness
X
Transport
X
X
Low energy
building
X
X
Mixed land use
X
X
diversity
X
History
X
X
Liveability
X
X
Uniqueness
X
Green spaces
X
Recycling
X
Measurements
Physical
elements
Functional
elements
Perceptive
elements
Environmental
elements
X
The Table 3-1 shows that all measurements for sustainability are mentioned in
theory but not on a National level in Denmark. In the theory chapter, four
measurements were highlighted more than the others (density, mixed land
use, liveability and green spaces). These are chosen because they each
represent one of the sub groups of measurements (physical; functional;
perceptive and environmental elements).
How to plan sustainably at the local level – a qualitative assessment
44
In next chapter our measurement will be applied on a case on the local scale.
This will be done with methods described in Chapter 2, the triangulation of this
project. First the case will be presented, in order to make the triangulation
evident to the reader. Then our measurements will be put to use on the local
scale with a qualitative discussion.
How to plan sustainably at the local level – a qualitative assessment
45
How to plan sustainably at the local level – a qualitative assessment
46
CHAPTER 4: RANDERS - THE
CASE STUDY
This chapter reveals the analysis of findings from the interview partners and
the local plan. The analysis is based on the theoretical framework in the
previous chapter. The interview partners are some of the stakeholders in the
Thor’s Bakke redevelopment project. The project’s architect is Arkitema and
the interview partner from Arkitema was Kristian Langkilde (KL). The financiers
of the project are a consortium composed of Property Partners, DIFKO, Henton
and KPC byg. Unfortunately they were not interviewed. The politician
interviewed, Mr Mogens Nyholm (MN) was interviewed in his capacity as a
politician representing the Radical Liberal Party and as the chairperson of the
Technical and Environmental Department in the municipality of Randers. The
last interview was with the Planning Department of the municipality of
Randers.
4.1. LOCATION
As Figure 4-1 shows is the municipality of Randers located on the east coast of
Jutland, between the second largest city in Denmark, Århus, and the fourth
largest, Aalborg. The municipality is situated next to one of the most
important highways, called E45, shown as orange in Figure 4-1, in Denmark,
which is the connection to all the main cities in Jutland and connects Jutland to
the rest of Denmark. The city of Randers lies in the southern part of the
municipality of Randers.
How to plan sustainably at the local level – a qualitative assessment
47
Figure 4-1: Map of the city Randers and the location of Randers in Denmark (Source:
UPM0703, 2008)
The fringe of Randers consists of the Gudenå, the longest stream in Denmark,
which flows just south of the city centre, dividing the city centre from the
southern part of the city. South east of Randers are some water reserves as
well as a forest and some wetlands that are worth preserving in order to
secure the ground water as well as the diversity of wild life in the area. To
pass over the Gudenå there is only one bridge that connects the residents in
the entire municipality of Randers.
4.2. THE HISTORY OF THE CITY
The city of Randers has a long history, reaching back to the year 1080. It is
believed that the city was a trading place which was in the hands of the
church at that time. Around the year 1600 the city blossomed when rich
merchants started to build up the city and in the beginning of 19th century the
city form changed very much with the rise of industry like Thor Brewery in
1856 and the train factory Scandia in 1862. The city kept on growing and
expanding, green areas and parks were a big part of the city, both as
breathing spaces and as boarders for the city. After 1945 the growth of the
city was so much that the green spaces were demolished for new city
developments. In 2007 the municipality got bigger when other small towns in
the area merged with the city, as a result of the new map of Denmark
(Randers Kommune, 2006).
How to plan sustainably at the local level – a qualitative assessment
48
Figure 4-2: City centre of Randers (Source: UPM0703, 2008)
Nowadays, Randers city is a charming city, which possesses a lot of history
with old buildings as Figure 4-2 indicates. Randers faces same problems as
many other cities concerning ambition of continuing to grow but still to
maintain the charming historical characteristics. It is the sixth largest city in
Denmark; on the 1st of January 2008 the city had 59.565 inhabitants (StatBank
Denmark, 2008). With the ambition to grow bigger and attract residents, the
city has to build new residential areas and to build denser, which is one of the
measurements of sustainability. The municipality has set the ambition to
reach 100.000 residents by the year 2016 as it is stated in the Strategy 2016
(Randers Kommune, 2007a, p.3) for the municipality. However in the
population projection in Randers municipality this goal or aim will not be
reached until 2021 (Randers Kommune, 2007b, p.3) as can be seen on Figure
4-3. Despite this mismatch the municipality has to have a plan where their
future residents will live and have some appealing solutions to attract the
number of residents they chose to have in the municipality.
Figure 4-3: Population projection for the municipality of Randers(Source: Randers
Kommune, 2007b)
In order to operationalise their ambitions Randers is planning for a new
residential area south of the city for 7500 residents (Randers Kommune,
2007a, p. 4). In addition there is a brownfield close to the city centre which is
How to plan sustainably at the local level – a qualitative assessment
49
going through regeneration, a site called Thor’s Bakke. As the municipality
planners said “the prognoses for the development in population makes it clear
that Randers must have more dwellings in the city. Therefore we will make the
city centre denser and Thor´s Bakke was an obvious choice to build compact
and high...” (appendix E).
Among all the measurements defined in the theoretical chapter, four of them
were stressed: density, mixed land use, green spaces and liveability. Now
these four measurements will be assessed qualitatively in the case study of
Thor’s Bakke. First of all, a brief description of the site of Thor’s Bakke is made
to get a general urban understanding of the site. Then the four measurements
are analyzed in a qualitatively discussion by using the local plan of Thor’s
Bakke and the three interviews conducted with an architect, municipality
planners and a political member in Randers city.
4.3. THOR’S BAKKE
Thor’s Bakke is a 31.000m² big old industrial estates, located close to the
centre of Randers, as shown in figure 4-4. The history of the estate reaches
back to the year 1850 when the locations for the brewery were decided. It lies
on a hill, between the Police station and Tinghuset (old court house). In the
north, the site is delimited by a forest and in the south it borders on the city
centre. The brewery was closed in 2003.
Figure 4-4: Location of Thor’s Bakke in Randers (source: Google map, UPM0703,
2008)
Even if it is not the main point of this report, one thing should be underlined at
this stage in terms of sustainability. By re-using an existing site, the city is
taking on a sustainable approach instead of using some of the natural field at
the fringe of the urban area. Also by re-using the old industrial site the city is
making use of the already existed infrastructure in the surroundings, for
example the access roads, water and sewer reticulation etc. Thor’s Bakke is
currently under construction as can be seen on Figure 4-5.
How to plan sustainably at the local level – a qualitative assessment
50
Figure 4-5: Current state of Thor´s Bakke (source: UPM0703, 29/10/2008)
It is always controversial when an industrial estate undergoes a regeneration
or redevelopment, especially in a central location. Sometimes the process can
be long, from the demolition of the older housing until new project takes
shape. The municipality planners specified that “the planning of Thor’s Bakke
took approximately one year and the political decision approximately two
years, because of the new municipality structure in Denmark. The final local
plan for the area was agreed upon late 2007” (appendix G). According to the
planners, a public debate went on about the new plan for site “there have
been two public debates about the project. The project has been exposed in
the library and there have been exhibition about the ground and the buildings.
There had been an ongoing public debate through one and half year and the
media paid a lot of interest” (appendix G). By this way, citizens have the
opportunity to get involved in the process from the beginning. This way the
citizens can express their opinion, their viewpoint of the ongoing project. The
overall goal might be to take into consideration their view in order to shape a
project that responds better to the citizens. In this way this might be a crucial
step to contribute to the liveability of a project as far as it is defined in this
project. Also, with the historical background of the site it is good to get the
citizens involved because as the planners specify that “the project is an
important strategic element” (appendix G).
In July 2004 a new law about environmental assessment was put into action.
The aim of the law is to promote sustainable development by ensuring that
there will be environmental assessment were the planning process could have
significant effects on the environment. The environmental assessment for
Thor’s Bakke is based on the one done for the previous plan, called Lokalplan
341. That plan (341) was the first plan that the municipality agreed on for the
site. In the beginning, the site was called “Thor’s Grund” (Lokalplan, 2007). As
the planners state “the project have been politically complicated. Besides,
there have been different legal problems to take into consideration e.g.
environmental assessment, the polluted ground and the law concerning
planning in Denmark [...] the political complexity has to do with the large
importance concerning identity the Thor brewery have had to Randers”
(appendix G). Also the public debates, which were mentioned earlier, had an
impact on the planning process or as the planners said “during the planning of
the project there have been some adjustments which were a result of the
public and political debate and the elements that was highlighted there”
(appendix G).
It was in late 2007 that the new local plan, Lokalplan Nr 508, for Thor’s Bakke
was passed. This plan sets the future function and appearance of the site. In
the local plan the area is divided into five sub-areas, so a detailed regulation
and determination of future development is possible. Each of the five subHow to plan sustainably at the local level – a qualitative assessment
51
areas will have a different function within the site and also within the city as
can be seen in Figure 4-6.
Figure 4-6: Site plan of Thor’s Bakke – displaying the different functions integrated on
the site (source: Arkitema, UPM0703, 2008)
Thor’s Bakke is a private project. The interview with the planners unveiled that
the project is a private project owned by a consortium of four companies
(Property Partners, DIFKO, Henton, and KPC byg). This consortium bought the
brewery ground. According to the planners at the municipality, the project
should be finished in 2012, however it is not clear if the current international
financial crisis will affect the project or not, “the investors have pushed to get
the project started. The political and the public debate have prolonged the
process. The actual building process is not delayed” (appendix G).
4.3.1. Density
Density is a controversial measurement for sustainability. Most scholars agree
that urban sprawl is unsustainable, so the conclusion would be that more
dense cities would lead to a sustainable urban form. But the difficulty lies
within defining and finding the right density: the density which leads
towards a decrease of environmental pollution but is still perceived as
How to plan sustainably at the local level – a qualitative assessment
52
liveable, which means it is socially accepted. There is no unique right answer
to this question. To find the right density for new developments the
surroundings and the cultural context must be taken into account, the term of
acceptable or qualified density is used. This means that the indicator of
density must be adapted to the surroundings and context of the site. So the
aim is now to find out whether in the case of Thor’s Bakke the acceptable
density was chosen.
The local plan regulates that the average density6 in Thor’s Bakke should not
be higher than 1,9. This means that the total sum of built floor should not be
more than 1,9 times the size of the plot. The foreseen density of Thor’s Bakke
is, in comparison to the surrounding areas, relatively low, where the density of
some surrounding zones often lies above 2,4 (Lokalplan, 2007). Therefore the
density in Thor’s Bakke may be considered to be unacceptably lower
compared to the zones around it.
On the following Figure 4-7 the distribution of the density in the Thor’s Bakke
is illustrated. The areas in the north-east of the Thor’s Bakke, where a high
rise building is planned to be placed, and the south-west, where a library will
be situated, are the densest. However the density on the library site will not
be perceptible for the inhabitants and visitors, as in the plans the library
building will be partially underground. In addition to this, a park is designed on
its roof, so the area has a double function. This design decision is a very good
example of the combination of density and liveability as density is considered
unacceptably high if people feel crowded. Having the library underground is
therefore a good way to maintain perceptions of liveability whilst achieving
higher density.
Figure 4-7: Distribution of density in Thor’s Bakke (source: Lokalplan, 2007, UPM0703,
2008)
6
The density in the Local plan – which is legally binding - is calculated by the ratio of the gross
floor area – sum of the surface of floor of the building - to the size of the plot.
How to plan sustainably at the local level – a qualitative assessment
53
In the local plan, density is regulated through the building height. The
buildings will vary between three and seven floors (18m to 27m), depending
on the location on the site. (Lokalplan, 2007) As the architect KL mentioned in
the interview, it was an important designing factor for Arkitema that despite
the density “everybody gets good sunlight and as many as possible have the
great view”. So the aim was to establish liveability (“nice neighbourhood”) in
combination with relatively high density.
The municipality assigned, as already mentioned, the permission that in the
north east of the area a 90m high rise building can be erected. This building
will be visible from all parts of the city. (Lokalplan, 2007) More than half of the
total erected floor space for living (9.500 m² out of 18.800 m²) is located in
the high rise building and the building has a huge impact on the average
density of the site. To be able to illustrate the influence of the high rise
building on the density of the area, the area will be broken up into zones and
in the following table the density of each zone will be displayed. It has to be
remarked that in case of the high rise building is not built, the average density
of Thor’s Bakke would decrease to 1,5, see appendix D for calculations. This
corresponds approximately with the density of a terraced housing estate. It is
the high rise building that helps elevate the density in Thor’s Bakke towards
an acceptable density and without it the level of density in Thor’s Bakke at 1.5
will be too low when compared to surrounding sub-areas.
Table 4-1: Density in Thor’s Bakke according to sub-areas (source: Lokalplan, 2007,
UPM0703, 2008)
Subareas
Land Use
1
Housing, Public Purpose
& Health centre
2
3
Surface of
the subarea (m²)
Density
15 500 m²
9 113 m²
1,7
High rise building
(Housing & Offices)
14 000 m²
3 886 m²
3,6
Educational Institutions,
Shops, Services &
Housing
14 000 m²
7 942 m²
1,8
4
Cinema, Library, Services
15 500 m²
7 201 m²
2,0
5
Thor’s Brewery
1 500 m²
2 858 m²
0,5
59 500 m²
31 000 m²
1,9
Total
Max. Gross
Floor Space
in m²
The architect KL sees the planned high rise building rather ambivalently. On
the one hand he says that “it gives character to the site”, it will be a point of
identification for the people living in the area and also for the inhabitants of
the city. On the other hand he points out that today every town wants to have
a high rise building to brand itself, without having the demand for it. “It’s a
[…] surprise that they could afford this […] in Randers because the houses are
not that expensive here” (appendix E). So in his opinion it is questionable
whether a high rise building is the right type of building for a city of the size of
Randers even with its impact on density.
But architects are not responsible for defining the density of future urban
development projects. The people in charge are the politicians in agreement
with the local planning department. The definition of the acceptable density is
How to plan sustainably at the local level – a qualitative assessment
54
an important measurement on the way towards a sustainable development, as
also the Minister of the environment recommends it in order to reduce the
ecological footprint of a city (Minister's Paper, 2008).
The politician MN mentions that the city has faced a big growth since the
1960s because since then the population of Randers has doubled. So the
municipality is trying to follow the strategy of urban infill – which means the
redevelopment of old industrial sites – to increase the mean density in the
city. This strategy was chosen because the “city is not good to build high” as
MN says. So in his opinion there is no tradition to build high in Randers. It
seems the politician favours the increase in density but may not necessarily
agree with its realisation through a high rise building.
The municipality planners have a similar approach to density, even though
they have a different motivation. In their justification they refer also back to
the Danish National Strategy, although they mention that their planning
approaches / theories go much deeper than the sustainability concept
developed on the national level. They see density as a solution to handle the
expected population increase in the city. “Therefore we will make the city
centre denser and Thor Grunden (Thor’s Bakke) was an obvious choice to
build compact and high.” The chosen density on Thor’s Bakke is also relevant
for the other parts of the city, as it should support the liveliness of the whole
inner city (appendix G).
While the politician and the planners are concerned about the choice of the
right density, the focus for the architect is the definition of the right scale. In
his work he is trying to find out how the buildings should be placed and
structured so that they fit into the existing urban context. The challenge for
the architect in this project was to place the different functions on the site,
and to give it “the right scale”. The aim was to create a “nice neighbourhood”
which fits into the existing city.
Even though the architect is concerned about the scale of the project, and the
politician as well as the Planning Department claim that a high density is an
important aim in the planning of Thor’s Bakke, it is characterised by a lower
density than other inner city quarters. It might lead to the conclusion that the
people in charge have some objections against density although they claim
that Thor’s Bakke should be a dense new part of the city. First this might be
related back to the post-war housing developments, which are today often
associated with social problems. Second it might lead to the conclusion that
today’s planners or architects are not able to create the same urban quality
planners and architects were able to a century ago, as the old urban quarters
which are now perceived as the most charming are characterised by high
density.
However it is questionable whether a higher density would have had a positive
impact on a more sustainable development as 820 parking spaces are located
on the site. Even though KL argues that if sustainability is defined as supply of
needed services within walking distance, the project would be sustainable, the
parking spaces facilitate the inhabitant’s use of private transport. In addition
to that they generate further traffic in the area. So the created advantages of
density – like proximity to public and private services or diversity - will be less
obvious for the new inhabitants and users of the site since they will be
entrapped in the use of their cars and use remote facilities. As already
How to plan sustainably at the local level – a qualitative assessment
55
discussed in the theory chapter the lifestyle and habits of people have a great
impact on their behaviour in space. So by changing the urban structure but
keeping the same lifestyle no real progress can be made in the development
toward sustainability.
If the density in inner city areas is decreasing in comparison to the
surrounding it is not a good sign concerning sustainability for new
developments in the outskirts. We therefore conclude that the density in
Thor’s Bakke is not as high as would have been acceptable in comparison to
the surrounding zones. The fact that the high rise building might not be a
definite feature is another problem because if it is to be scrapped from the
plans then the density in Thor’s Bakke will be even less acceptably low.
4.3.2. Mixed land use
As Cervero (1996) notes densification is a good way to use land in a more
efficient way. However that is not sufficient on its own. By mixing the land
uses, another key element is achived in reaching the ultimate goal of
sustainable urban form. These two elements (density and mixed land use) in
the battle for urban sustainability are seen as complementary because they
cannot work effectively without each other to decrease the dependency on the
private car. Also it is mentioned in sub section 3.6.2.1, mixed land uses are
the antithesis of zoning land use management. The mixed land uses and well
fine-grained cities are seen as a way to decrease the dependency on the car
by moving jobs, shops, services and leisure facilities closer to citizens’
dwellings.
Earlier in this report a definition of mixed land use had already been made as
to how the group understands and sees mixed land use. By briefing the
definition again, it should be remembered that mixed land use is the
compatible diversity of functional land uses such as residential, commercial,
institutional, and leisure that are located within a reasonable distance each
other or otherwise close to a public transportation station in order to
encourage non-motorized transportation.
In the following section, the mixed land uses on the site will be described and
analyzed, according to all the elements gathered and compared to the
national as well as the theoretical perception of mixed land use.
On the site of Thor’s Bakke different land uses are intended to be located. The
plan allows 180 accommodations in the area with the possibility of addition of
50 more, so all together 230 accommodations. The area will also consist of a
park, health centre, educational institution, movie theatre, offices, and light
industry for example repair shops. Also there will be a lot of different uses
integrated in the area, whereas within the individual building units there is
generally very little mixed use planned. The allocation of the different
functions is visualised in Figure 4-8. The figure shows that the public functions
are located nearest to the existing city centre, whereas the residential area is
located in the northern part of Thor’s Bakke. This will give the future
inhabitants of Thor’s Bakke the best possible view of their city and expand the
functions of the existing city centre with the establishment of the new cultural
and public functions in the city. The new area will accommodate at least 820
parking spaces, the majority of them will be underground (Lokalplan, 2007).
How to plan sustainably at the local level – a qualitative assessment
56
Figure 4-8: Overview of the land use in Thor’s Bakke (Source: Lokalplan, 2007,
UPM0703, 2008)
Parts of the old brewery, sub-area five as seen in Figure 4-8, will be preserved
and used to house: a drama school, music, visual arts for children and youth,
gallery, community centre for young people. A part of the old brewery will also
be used as sale offices for Thor Brewery. With the preservation of the old
brewery the plan is that Thor’s Bakke will be designed in terms of the history,
but also that this new part of the city will have its own identity (Lokalplan,
2007).
20%
23%
Public Buildings
Stores
Business
9%
Schools
Houses
Parking
10%
27%
11%
Figure 4-9: Allocation of built area by land uses in percent (source: Arkitema,
UPM0703, 2008)
As in Thor’s Bakke a big variety of different land uses should be integrated in
future. The aim of the interviews was to find out why the different functions
were chosen and what the reasons for this combination of land uses was. But
in the course of the interviews it turned out that the term ‘mixed land use’
was not one that was commonly used by our interview partners. They referred
to it but in a roundabout sort of manner. However the diagram above
How to plan sustainably at the local level – a qualitative assessment
57
highlights an unacceptably high proportion of parking as a land use on the
whole. Such a high amount of parking could generate high volumes of traffic
and thereby run counter to the principle of traffic reduction as a part of the
making of a sustainable urban form.
The politician, MN, explained that the plans for the land uses were made in the
planning department. His main concern regarding the mix land use was to
avoid commercial areas larger than 400 m², so that the inner city shops would
not be endangered by the redevelopment of Thor’s Bakke. By these, potential
negative impacts of the site on the existing city centre should be reduced.
Furthermore he believes that Thor’s Bakke will have its own identity with small
shops, which cannot be found in other places i.e. Århus and Aalborg. The
restriction of commercial spaces to be no larger than 400m2 can also be seen
as a way to create more mixed land-uses as this would mean a higher number
of different shops unlike when it would have been bigger commercial spaces
with less different shops.
The planners from Randers do not use the term mixed land use when
answering the interview guideline. They sum up the different functions that
are planned to be located on Thor’s Bakke and highlight that the historical
element of the location is the most significant function. When asked whether
they believe that the plan is sustainable they refer back to their previous
answers, including the different functions of the site. So from their point of
view mixed land use is an important indicator for sustainability.
The architect’s view on the land use is that Thor’s Bakke represents the “ideal
city”. There will be shops, housing and offices, and there will be public city
functions like a library and a health centre. “So in that way it is a sustainable
city […] you don’t have to take the car to go somewhere...to another place.”
(appendix E). The implementation of mixed land use is the only sustainable
aspect the architect can identify in Thor’s Bakke. In the case of mono
functional site KL would try to intervene, even though, as KL pointed out
several times, in the end it is always the client’s decision. In his opinion a
multi functional site provides more life.
In connection with mixed land use the architect mentions that flexibility is an
important characteristic nowadays. Especially it is an important factor for the
investors because it allows them to adjust to economical changes and the
change of demand. But flexibility is not only an important factor, to be able to
adjust to economical changes but also to occurring demands in the planning
area through the development of the site. So not only is mixed land uses a
priority in Thor’s Bakke but the ability of the different land uses and to be
flexible to occurring needs is equally important..
In general, mixed land use is adapted into the local plan for Thor’s Bakke as
well as into the proposal from the architectural company. This measurement
of sustainability is used purposely because the actors are aware of the
positive impact mixed land use can have in an urban area, e.g traffic
reduction, vibrancy, diversity. With mixed land use, the hope is that Thor’s
Bakke will be an urban area which will be buzzing with life all day. The
possibility to establish an urban development area in Randers with a high
degree of mixed land use is present, the future will show if the shop owners,
nursing school and inhabitants choose to establish themselves in Thor’s
Bakke. It has to be noted that the mixed land use in Thor’s Bakke is a “wish”
How to plan sustainably at the local level – a qualitative assessment
58
or “vision” of the people planning the site, but there is no guarantee that the
wishes will come true.
The findings on Thor’s Bakke combined with the theory in Chapter 3 shows
that the use of mixed land use on Thor’s Bakke is horizontal as Figure 3-5
shows. In the architectural plan for Thor’s Bakke there is a suggestion to
implement vertical zoning in the high rise building and thereby make the view,
from the building, accessible to the public as well as integrate different uses
into the building and to ensure diversity. One of the theoretical benefits that
the interviewees did not refer to is the matter of security. As mentioned in
Chapter 3 one of the benefits of mixed land use is an enhanced feeling of
security of the users of the area. Another aspect is whether the mixed land
uses are within reasonable distance to each other.
The fact that Thor’s Bakke, among other things, should consist of a cinema is
positive seen from the environmental Minister’s perspective. He sees one of
the positive elements of mixed land use as the possibility to create a city zone
which is alive all day. With the cinema located in Thor’s Bakke it is likely that
the area will be filled with life since the cinema is an evening attraction.
However, the danger of Thor’s Bakke as it is planned today is that the mixed
functions might be too widespread horizontally in the southern part of Thor’s
Bakke. The fact that the small shops and the different public functions are
planned to be situated in the southern part of the area, can make a division
within Thor’s Bakke. This can be one of the limitations of horizontal zoning in
planning. With a vertical zoning, the possibilities of having too widespread an
area is reduced as well as a better mixed land use would be provided in the
area.
There is no tool in planning with which to ensure that the original plan agreed
upon is going to be realised. All future developments are depending on the
economical feasibility and viability of the project.
4.3.3. Green spaces
Like the two previous measurements, green spaces are seen as a key
measurement to achieve sustainability in an urban context. Therefore, this
measurement should be considered to some extent in the Thor’s Bakke case
study. Referring back to the theoretical framework, green spaces portray the
‘lungs’ of the cities and are seen as bringing the countryside into the city.
According to the definition made in this report, green spaces are ‘multifunctional’ and should fulfil both:
- Social roles for physical and mental welfare (recreational area and used to
release the stress from the modern urban life)
- Environmental benefits (flood defence, improvement of urban air quality,
preservation of wildlife habitats allow fauna and flora biodiversity, reestablish better local hydrological processes)
According to the above definition of a green space, in the case of Thor’s
Bakke, it should practically have, at least, the following requirements:
- To belong to the public realm to allow whoever may want to take
advantage of the green space
How to plan sustainably at the local level – a qualitative assessment
59
- To be designed and laid out to allow the practise of several different
activities (children’s play, meditation, walking, cycling, sitting, socialising,
etc ...)
- To be permeable as much as possible (natural area)
- To design according to a sensible landscaping (vegetation diversity) to
allow biodiversity (sustainable management of the green space)
Figure 4-10: Localisation of the ‘City Park’ in Thor’s Bakke (source: Arkitema)
According to the architectural plan, a city park will be located in sub-area 4
which can be seen in Figure 4-7 and Figure 4-8. It is the only area that can be
considered as corresponding to a ‘green space’ according to the definition.
Otherwise, the requirements from the local plan concerning the others subplot, sub-area 1, 2, 3 and 5 are related to open spaces. Indeed, the greening
of the open space is not always required and a part of the open space
regulated can take place as roof terrace or balconies, not necessarily on the
ground (Lokalplan, 2007).
More precisely, the ‘public green City Park’ is designed to be placed above the
library as the roof of the library as Figure 4-11 and Figure 4-12 portray. It is
also designed to take great advantage of the sloping topography of Thor’s
Bakke which leads directly down to the Gudenå through Østervold.
How to plan sustainably at the local level – a qualitative assessment
60
Figure 4-11: Design of the ‘City Park’ in the top of the library (source: Arkitema)
Figure 4-12: Source of inspiration for the design of the ‘City Park’ as a roof of the
library (source: Arkitema)
The local plan intended deliberately to use this ‘City Park’ in the South of the
site to make a physical connexion between the recent layout of Østervold and
the current project of Thor’s Bakke, Østervold is widely laid out with a mineral
treatment. On the opposite, it is specified in the local plan that the ‘City Park’
will embody the nature as an “open, green and inviting urban area”
(Lokalplan, 2007). The landscaping, the material composition and the general
design of the ‘City Park’ are not specified at this stage of the process. It is
merely stated that the plantation and the layout of the ‘City Park’ will have to
be approved by the municipality (Lokalplan, 2007).
The architectural plan, which is based on the local plan, does not consider
green spaces as a key component in a sustainable urban project. At no time
during the interview the stress was put on green spaces. The architect made a
quick allusion to a “park” that can be understood in the sense of green space
as defined in this report, His discourse, in terms of sustainability, is more
building-oriented (about the orientation of the buildings, water savings, heat
savings, etc...), much less about the surrounding area.
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Green spaces might seem to be a straightforward and common requirement of
the program that the architect has to deal with in the design of the site. The
environmental and social benefits of a green space might not be very obvious
seen from an architectural viewpoint. Because the planners present Thor’s
Bakke as a sustainable project one could reasonably belief that the degree of
green to be sufficient according to them. A closer examination will reveal that
green seems to be more of a selling or marketing tool than a criteria
incorporated for its links towards the achievement of a sustainable urban
form.
According to politician, “green means environment”. Nonetheless, it is
necessary to underline that ‘green’ is used in the discourse of the politician
with two different meanings: First, ‘green’ is used to refer to natural area such
as parks which is composed of “grass, trees and benches” (appendix D). This
is closer to our group definition of green spaces.
Secondly, ‘green’ is also used to distinguish the eco-friendly facts when
speaking about Randers or Thor’s Bakke “Thor’s Bakke should be a green part
of the city where a focus on low energy housing, bicycle lanes and the
possibility of public transportation”. When speaking about ‘green’, the
politician establishes a scale of how green Thor’s Bakke could be: “There has
been no objection to the degree of green areas in Thor’s Bakke” (appendix F).
In that case the meaning of ‘green’ is synonym to this report’s definition of
green spaces.
The politician underlines two keys elements that have been used to define the
social aspect of ‘green space’: an area where people can take time out from
the stresses of modern urban life and 'breath', and an area designed to
achieve ‘recreational purpose’. On the other hand, with exception of the
citizens’ welfare, none of the several other benefits of green spaces are taken
into consideration from politician point of view. MN, as a politician, is much
concerned about the social assets of a green space in his city, much less
about the environmental aspects. He has never mentioned any aspect of the
environmental requirement in the course of the interview.
However, another green element can be quoted at this stage of the analysis,
even if it can be not considered as a green space at the sense of the
definition. The former Brewery site was strongly impermeable, except a ‘green
line’ lying in the North fringe of the site. This ‘green line’, which is made of
trees alignment, seems to echo back to the forest space. Indeed the sloping
topography which goes down from the North (forest space) to the South
(Gudenå and Østervold) gets this green line belonged much more to the North
part of the city then to Thor’s Bakke itself and the South. The trees alignment,
belonging to the public realm, would constitute a strong element of the
scenery that should be preserved both in order to make better physical and
natural connexion between city centre and the fringe of Randers and to keep
to the same extent as the former Brewery building a landmark for citizens.
This green element of the scenery has been identified by the local plan and
has to be preserved in the project.
Nevertheless, it should also be borne in mind that, even if maps made by
Arkitema company, such as Figure 4-13 portrays, seem to be very ‘green’,
with a lot of ‘greenery’ is within the blocks, only one green space is
recommended by the local plan. As a result, there is only an assurance that
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one ‘green space’ will implemented. At this early stage in the urban design,
greening is an artefact widely used to make the project attractive and
appealing. Green is seen as a mercantile tool in order to ‘sell’ the project.
Therefore, the map below must be seen with this critical point of view.
Figure 4-13: ‘Greenery’ in map of Thor’s Bakke (source: Arkitema, UPM0703, 2008)
By way of conclusion, it can be said that the ‘City Park’ of Thor’s Bakke is not
designed in the manner that a green space has been approached in this
report. Several reasons can account for this.
First, the ‘City Park’ is laid out on the top of the library as a kind of vegetation
roof. Therefore, for structural reasons and as result for economical ones, the
roof of the library might not support a wide (heavy) landscaping synonymous
with biodiversity. None of the interviewees refer to the environment aspects
and benefits of green space design. This element of ‘City Park’ may be
unlikely to lead to a genuine green space in terms of environmental benefits,
which are not likely to be reached in this park. Concerning the social aspect,
MN, sees some genuine public ambitions though the design of a green space:
recreational area and stress release benefits. But it will probably take much
more than “grass, trees and benches” to reach the overall goal of a green
space in terms of social benefits. Taking away the size of the park, one can
wonder if the layout and the design of the future ‘City Park’ would be
adequate to satisfy the politician’s ambitions for his fellow-citizens.
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All in all, the environmental assets are not considered in the plan for Thor’s
Bakke. Even if this issue was taken into consideration in this project, the
location on the top of the library is not efficient. Indeed, the reflexion in terms
of physical layout and material means seems to be too weak to reach the
social goal of green space in Thor’s Bakke.
4.3.4. Liveability
Liveability is one of the group’s chosen perceptive elements. In this report
liveability is defined as: “the ability of an area, neighbourhood or city to be
lived in by preference of people at any one given instant. This means that
urban sustainability requires citizens’ participation and feedback in the
process. Through this definition we want to emphasise that liveability is a
safeguard criterion that intends to ensure that planning is done first for the
citizens themselves and then for other purposes.” Essentially liveability may
be viewed as the ultimate test of the true sustainability of a place. We
proceed now to an analysis of how liveability was handled in the planning for
Thor’s Bakke by the local plan agreed upon in 2007, the project architects, the
politician and the Randers municipality planners.
Though liveability is not mentioned explicitly in the agenda of the local plan,
the area is designed so it will attract people to both live there and spend their
time. By preservation of the old brewery building the area is holding on to
some of its old identities i.e. its history. That the area is designed with
diversity in mind should also contribute to the liveability because the area will
not be homogenous. In theory the design of the area looks robust and should
contribute to liveability, however it is not possible to say whether the place is
liveable until it is finished and people start moving there and use the place as
it was originally thought of.
The incorporation of all the different uses of land i.e. cafes, shops, flats,
offices, light industry, cinemas, drama school etc will go a long way in
enhancing the liveability of Thor’s Bakke through attracting different age
groups, different functions and diverse activities into one area. In theory
Thor’s Bakke should be quite an exciting place to reside, visit and use. The
nursing and music schools along with the offices would provide life in Thor’s
Bakke during work hours whilst the cinema and cafes would ensure activity
after hours, depending on the preferences of the people who are to make use
Thor’s Bakke of course. It is commendable that the mix of land-uses is an ideal
way of achieving liveability for it will give the Individual many choices of
activities to be pursued in Thor’s Bakke. We could safely conclude that
according to the local plan Thor’s Bakke will be a highly liveable place with
because of the high level of concern shown for the Individual and his needs in
the plan.
The politician, MN, did not have not much to say on liveability explicitly i.e. in
the strictest sense of the word. However a closer look at the interview
suggests that MN is conscious of the concept, though not in its literal sense,
for he does highlight that Thor’s Bakke should be a place for everyone. He
acknowledges that the placement of a health centre and apartments for the
elderly would help give people an opportunity to visit Thor’s Bakke i.e. create
life in the place. Furthermore the politician highlights the presence of a
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fountain where the silo once stood. He deems it should be a place that people
will be able to relax with their grandchildren 30 years from now. This highlight
shows us that the politician is concerned and aware about implications of
liveability of the place through its resilience i.e. “...30 years from now.” If
Thor’s Bakke is going to be as resilient a place as to be used by individuals
and their grandchildren in thirty years’ time, then we may safely conclude that
the politician deems it will be quite a liveable place.
The architect has slightly more formulated views on liveability though it seems
they take a rather cursory approach to liveability in the strictest sense. It is
evident that the liveability of the Thor’s Bakke project will not be something
that is noted consciously as a priority on its own merit but will be integrated
on an ad hoc basis because some of its elements are the priorities of building
design e.g. that buildings have enough sunlight, depth of the building, energy
use etc. On the other hand the architect is aware of ‘getting the human factor
into the city.’ For him liveability will also mean ensuring “a nice place to live”
and “24-hour life” in the Thor’s Bakke area and he maintains that there should
be a certain kind of liveliness all year round as well.
Despite the apparent lack of attention to liveability in the project, the
architect does highlight that getting the human factor into the project
enhances its sustainability. The inclusion and awareness of the human factor
is by extension a concern for liveability. Judging by the preoccupation the
architect has with encouraging “24-hour life” and liveliness all year round in
Thor’s Bakke we take the liberty to assume Thor’s Bakke will be a very
liveable place if the architect is to structure the entire site in such a way as to
encourage liveliness.
The municipality’s planners like our other sources did not mention liveability in
the strictest sense of the word per se. They did however mention that the
Thor’s Bakke was to be the link between the western and eastern parts of the
city and would help to create a city centre which is alive. We assume that if
they regard Thor’s Bakke as promising such a high level of vibrancy and
attraction then they do think it to be (by extension) a liveable area. The high
emphasis that the planning department seems to place on public participation
in the project is a good point in terms of ensuring the liveability of the area.
This is because liveability is a safeguard criterion which is communicated
through the public’s participation to ensure that the place is liveable or not. It
is like the English say, the proof of the pudding is in the tasting, so therefore
the proof of the liveability of a place is to be found in those who will live there.
On the whole the Thor’s Bakke project can be said to be quite liveable with all
the different land-uses and different people it is going to have. It will be a
problem though if there is to be vehicular traffic allowed into the area. The
site looks too small to have motorised as well as pedestrian traffic and if it
does, it is highly likely that pedestrian traffic will suffer from the movement of
cars in Thor’s Bakke. The element of noise from the traffic would also have a
negative effect on the liveability of Thor’s Bakke. It would be better if Thor`s
Bakke was made into a strictly pedestrian zone, with allowances, of course, for
the elderly, delivery trucks and ambulances for the health centre as well. It
can only be said conservatively that the Thor’s Bakke may be a liveable area.
However this can only be really said or affirmed when the area has started to
function and people’s perceptions of the have been made in the real sense of
the place.
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Unfortunately our sources i.e. the local plan, the architect, the politician, the
municipality planners and literature as well, have highlighted no set ways in
which liveability may be implemented in making an urban development
project more sustainable. Liveability as a concept still lacks a definite
conceptual framework with which it can be understood and implemented in a
systematic and comprehensive way. It should therefore suffice that these
three parties are conscious of the need for a place to be liveable for it to be
sustainable. It is a good sign towards the liveability of Thor’s Bakke that all our
sources are concerned with making Thor’s Bakke a lively place. It is also quite
important and commendable that the local plan and the municipality planners
have a high regard of public participation. Hopefully the engagement of the
public will ensure that Thor’s Bakke is in touch with the needs of the
individuals who are to use it and live in it. The fact that our sources are
conscious of the need for liveability leaves hope for its prioritization in the
operationalization stage of the Thor’s Bakke project.
4.4. FURTHER FINDINGS
4.4.1. Economics- The power of money
After considering the three interviews we have done, we have realised there is
an element in the sustainability paradigm that seems to be the most
important factor in whether a development project is sustainable. The
economic aspect of sustainable development has emerged to be one of great
influence, far greater than any other we have hitherto considered. We say
economic because it seems the investors group (Property Partners, DIFKO,
Henton and KPC byg) are really the people who will determine the level of
sustainability of the Thor’s Bakke project. The architect is quite clear that
whatever they can do with the project as architects, they can only do what the
investors agree to or want. He asserts that the investors can set economic
boundaries that are so tight such that sustainability parameters are not given
priority.
Economic interests are the main deciding factor in whether a development
project is pursued along the lines of sustainable development. Sustainability in
an economic project sense is quite new, and the architect asserts that for
sustainability or any of its parameters to be used actively, sustainability would
have to be a profitable agenda. For the investors if it is profitable then it is
worthwhile so hence sustainability has to make economic sense and be
profitable before financiers integrate it into their projects. Like the architect
said, sustainability has to become a fashionable trend and find a market (like
organic food), then demand for it would rise, (just like organic food), then it
would become widespread because it would be profitable.
4.4.2. Sustainability and power relations
From the interviews it is also evident that whatever efforts towards
sustainability that are made they are subject to the power structure within
Randers. Essentially, it is whoever controls the money also controls the
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environmental-friendliness and sustainability of the project. The players in the
power game could be said to be the Investors, the municipality and the Project
Architects. Though the local plan might provide basic guidelines on
sustainable parameters that are to be included, these can only really be
guidelines. The real decisions, on which sustainability parameters should be
implemented and how far, really lies with the financiers of the project.
Economic sustainability is thus of much more importance than any other
aspects of sustainability like the social or the environmental.
4.4.3. The relativity of the concept of
‘Sustainable’
Another interesting finding that has emerged is that of the different views that
all sources seem to have about one thing: sustainability and what it is.
Sustainability for the planners is found within the function implemented in
Thor’s Bakke. When asked if they consider the plan to be sustainable they
answer yes it is because of among other things the degree of mixed land use
on the site; for the architect it seems to mean low energy and efficient
buildings i.e. the physical infrastructure; for the politician it means green
things like grass, fountains i.e. the aesthetics. The local plan mainly views
sustainability as a matter of the diversity of functions within an area. It is very
evident that our sources have different views of sustainability because they
regard the project on different scales.
The architect is concerned about the buildings, the planner has a broad
general view of the city as a whole; the politician is thinking of the project in
the public’s point of view. This positively verifies Gardner (1987) modern
parable about sustainable development of the Elephant and Nine Blind men.7
Sustainability is such a relative concept such that very few people have the
same idea of what it is. Because of this inherent ambiguity it is very difficult to
really establish a way to examine how it was incorporated into an urban
development project let alone to measure the extent to which it has been
done so as to be measured.
4.5. CONCLUSION
After analysing our findings on the Thor’s Bakke project from the four different
sources, we have reached several conclusions concerning whether the
sustainable urban form is achievable in the complex city. We have attempted
to find out how we can measure sustainability in an urban context (Randers)
and also tried to find out the extent to which urban sustainability has been
used in the local planning of Randers.
Concerning how sustainability can be measured in an urban context we have
found that first and foremost it is very difficult to measure sustainability let
alone progress towards it. To measure sustainability also requires a lot more
time than we had at our disposal. Despite these obstacles when we applied
7
The Elephant and Nine Blind men is parable about nine blind Indian men who came across an
elephant, touched nine different parts of it and consequently thought it was nine different things
(Gardner, 1987).
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our four measurements of density, mixed-land uses, green spaces and
liveability we discover that all four have been used in the project even if it is
to varying extents.
The density of Thor’s Bakke, relative to the surrounding areas, is rather low
and does not qualify as acceptable density. Therefore the group does not
regard the level of density in Thor’s Bakke as adequate for a sustainable
urban form. The fact that the highest density in the Thor’s Bakke is only
reached through the presence of the high rise building, puts the project’s
density measurement in a precarious light if the high rise building is removed
from the plan. There also seems to be reluctance to increase density as it has
negative connotations i.e. crowding.
There is a particularly good employment of the concept of mixed land uses for
and all our sources were quite conversant and aware of the need for mixed
land uses. Furthermore, the land uses are within a reasonable distance from
each other. It would be worthwhile though if there could be more verticallyzoned mixed land uses.
There has also been use of green spaces in the project though it seems to be
confined mostly to the north and south-west of the Thor’s Bakke; it actually
has a rather punctuated feel to it. But then again the site benefits from having
a forest nearby which helps with the scenery. Because the environmental
aspects of green spaces are not really integrated into Thor’s Bakke’s the
green space may be better termed greening as it is mainly for social purposes.
Even if it is suitable for social purposes it may be of a rather poor quality
because it will consist mainly of grass rather than trees, grass, shrubs.
Liveability seems to suffer the pain of being a measurement that is included
rather unwittingly or unintentionally at this stage. On the other hand a
comprehensive measurement of liveability will only be possible when the site
opens and is being used. In essence Thor’s Bakke implements all our four
measurements to varying extents and for very diverse reasons.
Another conclusion we have reached is that spatial and environmental
determinism (i.e. the belief that human activities can be controlled through
the environment) is only really a small part of achieving sustainable urban
forms. Other actors and issues have to be considered which also affect the
achievement of the sustainable urban form. The economic interest and human
factor i.e. lifestyles and habits have a large bearing on whether a place is
sustainable. The great amount of power that the financiers wield over Thor’s
Bakke’s design (and by extension its sustainability) highlight the importance
of making sustainability a concept that makes economic as well as
environmental sense. We may mix land uses all we want, green the site all we
can and make it very dense; but if it does not make economic sense to those
who finance it then it is an unattainable sustainable urban form. The same
goes for sustainability that does not take peoples lifestyles and habits into
account.
To provide a visualization of the analysis of the different elements found to be
relevant in Thor’s Bakke project, the Figure 4-14 below indicates the level to
which the measurements are being along a qualitative scale. The beige
background highlight that more can be done in terms of sustainability in
Thor’s Bakke. Though the economic factor was not within the boundaries of
this report (hence the dotted gray line) it has emerged as one of the most
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decisive elements in the achievement of sustainable urban form. Though the
integration of mixed land uses was good, the use of green space and the
provision for density and liveability were inadequate to some extent the most
relevant factor was the economic feasibility of the project.
Figure 4-14: Analytical visualization of the implementation of measurements –
analysis. (Source: UPM0703, 2008)
Thor’s Bakke has also shown us that a sustainable urban form is achievable in
the complex city. By the virtue of Thor’s Bakke being the re-development of a
brown field site. This highlights an element of concern for progress towards a
sustainable urban form. This has to do with the fact that brown field
redevelopment is counter to urban sprawl. The implementation of certain
sustainability parameters or measurements within the re-development project
of a brown field site is indeed a positive step towards sustainability as well.
All in all, the project is a useful example of how to begin to implement
sustainability parameters in an urban context. As for progress towards
sustainability, the Thor’s Bakke is only one of many sites that are pursuing
urban development. If Randers is pursuing urban development along, what
seem to be, sustainable lines, what more if all the other development projects
in Randers were to be developed with sustainability in mind. If other
developments in Randers were to implement some or at least four measures
of sustainability then progress towards urban sustainability in Randers will be
much larger and more consolidated. Our measurements have allowed us to
see if an urban redevelopment project is on track concerning sustainability
though we have not really been able to find out how sustainable such a
project is. Sustainability is thus not only a process but a very long and
iterative process. It remains for us to now highlight what issues and
recommendations we have to propose on Thor Bakke as our case study. The
next chapter deals with our normative proposal for Thor’s Bakke.
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How to plan sustainably at the local level – a qualitative assessment
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CHAPTER 5: PROPOSALS
In this chapter the proposals and recommendations are suggested on how the
application of measurements of sustainability in an urban context may be
improved in Thor’s Bakke and possibly Randers as a whole. The following
proposals are based on the current design of the project, made by Arkitema.
These proposals can be seen as elements of decision-making aid for the
stakeholders of the Thor’s Bakke project. The aim is to improve the application
of measurements of sustainability in Thor’s Bakke and possibly in Randers as
a whole. The proposals are first based on the implementation of the four
measurements that have been used to assess qualitatively the sustainability
of an urban project: density, mixed land use, green space and liveability. As it
was mentioned previously in this report, liveability is multi-factor and cannot
be improved on its own. Therefore liveability is seen to be improved through
the high degree of implementation of the other measurements. The proposals
take into consideration design deficits which were already highlighted in the
analysis even if they do not refer directly to the four measurements. These
elements have proven to be important when reshaping the design of Thor’s
Bakke. In this chapter we assume it as important to broaden the term
sustainability again and to enrich it with more facets.
In the end of this chapter all the proposals for the improvement of Thor’s
Bakke will be synthesized and visualised in a map, Figure 5-9.
5.1. DESIGN ISSUES
This part tackles the proposals that affect the physical design of Thor’s Bakke.
First, the design of a large parking space is reconsidered and the
consequences in terms of traffic and commuting behaviour. Then a new
proposal for the design of the urban blocks is proposed in order to reach and
secure an acceptable density within Thor’s Bakke.
5.1.1. Reduction of parking spaces
While many European cities are constantly trying to reduce the inner city
parking spaces, Randers is planning to build 820 new parking spaces next to
the city centre (Whitelegg & Low, 2003; Lokalplan, 2007).
The idea to locate parking spaces underground is a good element, as cars do
not obstruct the public space to the benefit of the other users (pedestrians,
cyclist, etc...). However in Thor’s Bakke, 16 000 m² (820 parking spaces) are
used for parking spaces compared to the 54 780 m² dedicated to other uses.
That means that nearly one third of the newly built floor space is exclusively
devoted to the parking function.
The municipality aims to make the city centre car-free in order to reduce the
negative effects of traffic. Considering this, the construction of an
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underground parking lot in the close proximity to the city centre might have
some pernicious effects. Even if it could be seen as a way to achieve the carfree inner city zone, in general the increasing of supply of parking spaces
automatically persuades more people to use their car to go to the city.
At most, 230 housing units can be built in Thor’s Bakke. Considering that one
parking space is provided per dwelling, the municipality is providing almost
600 additional parking spaces only for the needs of visitors of the city-centre
and the cinema. The capacity of the parking space seems to be over-sized
compared to the needs.
The negative impact of this over-dimensioned parking space can be divided on
two levels.
5.1.1.1. Weak incentive for using alternative transport
modes
First, the incentives for using alternative transport modes (like walking,
cycling or public transport) will be lowered for the new inhabitants of Thor’s
Bakke. Around Europe different concepts have been developed to reduce cars
in the city: the results are vehicular-traffic-reduced, parking-space-free and
car-free quarters and housing units. One example is a car-reduced residential
project in Nordmanngasse in Vienna, Austria. Here the amount of parking
spaces, which is usually provided, has been reduced by 90%. That means that
a parking space was provided only for every 10th flat and this was also
devoted to car-sharing. In return, social facilities (like a sauna, laundry room,
internet café) have been provided. Investors might argue that such residential
developments are not profitable. In the case of Nordmanngasse only 2% of the
240 flats are not occupied and 9% of the total building cost could be saved
through the decrease of parking spaces. The precondition for a well
functioning car-free quarter is of course to provide a good access to public
transport (City of Vienna, 2008; Burkina, 2008).
In case of Thor’s Bakke this model would be very reasonable. The site is
located very close to the city centre, so the future inhabitants have good
access to facilities. Also the railway station is in a reasonable distance, which
can be reached easily by bicycle. The citizens should be encouraged to give
up using their own car by joining a car renting system in case of unusual
commuting. It is also proposed to share the parking spaces between the
citizens living in Thor’s Bakke which use their car during the day and the
people attracted to the site during the day to work (workers hired by the
health centre, by the different shops, etc...). This can also be seen as an
alternative to decrease the capacity of the parking and consequently the cost
for the site development. It is also suggested to limit strongly the access of
cars to the Thor’s Bakke in order to constitute a genuine pedestrian space and
consequently abolish all the parking spaces within Thor’s Bakke. The
abolishment of cars in Thor’s Bakke would also deliberate a lot of space in the
street, because even though underground parking spaces are provided the
current plan allows also parking in the streets. This way the streets could be
used as play streets or other recreational functions.
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5.1.1.2. Traffic consequences on the city level
The high amount of parking spaces might have a negative impact on the
traffic in the whole city. As mentioned before the location of 600 parking
spaces for non residents near to the city centre may lead to a car-free inner
city zone, but it does not solve the traffic problem of Randers, which is
worsened by the natural condition of the river which can be crossed over only
on one bridge.
In this proposal the suggestion is to reduce the parking spaces to
approximately 100 units. The city already supplies around 1500 of parking
facilities close to the railway station of Randers and the Rainforest. These
parking spaces are as well located close to the centre. In the following picture,
Figure 5-1, the location and the approximate spatial dimension of parking
spaces in Randers is displayed.
Figure 5-1: Parking spaces in Randers (Source: Google maps, UPM0703, 2008)
The reduction of the parking spaces might lead to protest among the
merchants in the city centre of Randers, as the peripherally located shopping
centre of the city disposed of 1800 parking spaces and they might fear to lose
their customers (Visit Randers, 2008). But the establishment of a well
functioning public transport system could take away their fear. For the parking
spaces located on Thor’s Bakke a multi-use system could be introduced as the
different functions need the parking spaces at different times. So from the
morning hours until the afternoon the car –owning / using employees of the
health centre and the library could use the parking spaces. In the afternoon
the parking spaces can be used by visitors of the cinema or the cafe.
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73
5.1.2. Low rise / high density
The analysis reveals that the mean density of Thor’s Bakke is low, lower than
the surrounding urban blocks, appendix I, that are not unliveable. To achieve
the goal of a higher acceptable density than it is planned at the moment, it is
suggested to put in practise the ‘low rise high density’ concept (Gauzin-Müller,
2001). This concept is suggested as a response to householders’ wish to have
an individual house. The aim is to limit the urban-sprawl, especially in low
density suburbs by building denser, e.g. terraced housing, but still low rise.
This concept of urban compromise can be transposed to the case of Thor’s
Bakke. In this case the density of the site can be adapted to the surrounding
without build higher buildings (such as a high rise building) by building closed
urban blocks. This way the low skyline in Randers is preserved.
5.1.2.1. Removal of the high rise building
Several issues have been mentioned in the analysis (Chapter 4), which lead to
the conclusion that a high rise building should be avoided on Thor’s Bakke.
The arguments will be summed up now shortly:
- Erection of a high rise building is connected with high construction costs
and – in the opinion of the architect KL – the demand might be not existent.
- Many medium size cities want to have a high rise building to position and
market themselves without having a real concept – estimation of the
effects.
- A big amount of the built housing floor area is located in the high rise
building. If no investor can be found – especially because of the current
financial crisis – the characteristics of the area would change.
Since the construction of the high rise building is also uncertain, it is
suggested to put into place more traditional buildings instead, inspired by the
others buildings designed in Thor’s Bakke. The subarea could consist of a
perimeter block8 development of 4 to 5 storey buildings.
Of course this measure has a big influence on the identity of the site, and also
of the whole city. This issue will be discussed later in sub section 5.2.1.
5.1.2.2. Perimeter block principle
The most dominant structure of buildings on the site is open U-shape building
blocks. But with a slight variation perimeter blocks could be established. The
perimeter block development is a very typical urban form in the central area
of Randers. By utilising it on Thor’s Bakke, a more homogeneous city structure
can be preserved.
Concretely, it consists of closing the U-shape blocks in order to increase
qualitatively the density (Gauzin-Müller, 2001). The typology of these closing
buildings has to fit ‘naturally’ with the surroundings and should not be higher
than the block itself. The additional surface built in each sub-area, compared
with the project designed by Arkitema, is depicted in the following Table 5-1
(the details of the calculation appear in the appendix I).
8
The perimeter block is characterised by buildings which are “placed on the edge of the site
facing onto the surrounding street“ (Rudlin & Falk, 1999, p. 178).
How to plan sustainably at the local level – a qualitative assessment
74
Table 5-1: Consequences of the proposals in terms of density (Source: Arkitema,
UPM0703, 2008)
Density of the sub-area
Gross built
floor
(Addition + /
less -)
Before
(Arkitema
project)
After (our
proposals)
Evolution
of the
density
(%)
1
+ 3404m²
1,5
1,9
+ 24%
2
- 6304m²
3,6
1,9
- 46%
3
+ 3728m²
1,6
2,1
+ 29%
41
UNCHANGED
2
2
0%
1
UNCHANGED
0,5
0,5
0%
+ 828m²
1,82
1,85
1%
Sub-area
5
TOTAL:
1
Due to the lack of information, the figures of the sub-areas 4 and 5 are based on the local plan
calculated on the Chapter 5 (see appendix D).
The new layout does not increase noticeably the mean density of the site.
Before, it was the 90 m high rise building that increased the mean density to
1,8. However, the construction of the high rise building is far to be approved
and in this case the average density fall down to 1,5 (see appendix D). The
new proposal is more adapted to the traditional skyline. Consequently, it
makes the density of 1,85 more realistic and more likely to be achieved.
The buildings which close the U-shape blocks allow the creation of a new kind
of area: a semi-public or semi-private area that establishes a higher privacy
for inhabitant living in Thor’s Bakke. Moreover, this building shape allows a
better appropriation by inhabitants who see unconsciously the quietness of
this inner space which belongs to them. Without closing the U-shaped
buildings the distinction between public and private realm is quite ambiguous.
From that might emerge a kind of forgotten space, neither belonging to the
pedestrians, nor too Thor’s Bakke inhabitants. By modelling one of the urban
blocks in 3D, as seen in Figure 5-2, it is easily got aware of the higher degree
of privacy created.
Figure 5-2: Principle of the closure of a U-shape building (Source: UPM0703, 2008)
How to plan sustainably at the local level – a qualitative assessment
75
5.2. FUNCTIONAL ISSUES
In this part, the functional aspects of Thor’s Bakke are discussed, starting with
a new branding. Instead of having a physical branding through the
construction of a high rise building, a new ‘image’ based on functional and
environmental qualities is foreseen for Thor’s Bakke. As suggested in the
analysis of the mixed land use of the site, it is suggested to put into practise
the vertical zoning in addition to the horizontal zoning that contribute partly,
in case of good implementation, to improve the liveability of the area.
5.2.1. A new branding for Thor’s Bakke
The removal of the high rise building means that the future landmark of Thor’s
Bakke but also of the city will be removed. Instead, a new branding for Thor’s
Bakke has to be created which can be based on its ‘green’ goals, which the
politician was originally aiming for. Examples for this are could be the car-free
districts, like the GWL district, in Amsterdam (Netherlands) or the BedZed
district in London which do not used any fuel energy. Such initiatives are
known in all Europe among those who are interested in the improvement of
the urban area. Some visits of mayors are organized in these neighbourhoods
to give an example of the ‘best practise’ in terms of urban planning. Thor’s
Bakke could be a ‘best practice project’, through the implementation of the
measurements developed in this report to a high degree. This would have a
positive impact on the ‘image’ of Thor’s Bakke, the city of Randers, the
municipality of Randers and perhaps even the entire region of eastern Jutland.
This way the project might be recognised on a regional, national or even on an
international level.
5.2.2. Vertical mixed uses
The analysis reveals that mixed land use is efficiently put into practise in
Thor’s Bakke but mainly in only one dimension: horizontally. Referring to the
concept of Montgomery (1998), it is suggested to implement the vertical
mixed use in the same building unit. The vertical mixed use can encompass
functional- as well as social mixed use.
Vertical functional mixed uses, in addition to horizontal zoning, would
establish different functions within the same building unit, in each storey for
instance, as portray in the Figure 5-3.
How to plan sustainably at the local level – a qualitative assessment
76
Figure 5-3: Illustration of the implementation of vertical zoning in addition to
horizontal zoning (source: UPM0703, 2008 with inspiration from Montgomery, 1998, p.
110)
A judicious choice of the functions combined with the semi-private courtyard
created by closing U-shape buildings, as seen in sub section 5.1.2.2 intends to
procure inhabitants some of the incentives of an individual house in a close
proximity to the city centre of Randers. During the closing hours (in the
evenings and on Sundays), when inhabitants go back home from their
workplace, just a part of the building unit is inhabited. The courtyard enables
the inhabitants to take a rest and to socialize with their neighbours. This
mixture makes Thor’s Bakke alive all the day and in the same time liveable,
the used functions of the area vary according to the period during the day.
However great attention should be paid in order not to mix any functions
together which disturb each other. For instance the residence for elder people
should avoid as much as possible being associated in the close proximity with
functions involving nightlife such as cinema or restaurant. For accessibility
reasons for less mobile users, the health centre has obviously to be built in the
basement.
Moreover in terms of vertical mixed use, a social dimension can be envisaged.
It can be foreseen in the same building unit to procure accommodations for
social housing, for private owners, for young householders as well as for elder
people. That means a diversity of the design of dwellings and a strong public
regulation able to impose such requirements to private developers.
Previously, in the project of Thor’s Bakke, mixed land use was implemented,
but only at the scale of the site. By adding the vertical dimension, mixed land
use is implemented at the building scale that increases the relative proximity
between each function. One other consequence is that the entire area would
be inhabited and ‘alive’ most of the day, and not just a part of the area as it
was the case with an exclusively horizontal mixed land use at the scale of
Thor’s Bakke.
How to plan sustainably at the local level – a qualitative assessment
77
5.3. SOCIAL ISSUES
5.3.1. Participation
In the interview with the planners from the municipality they state that
participation of the public is a very important factor in planning process. They
aim for a more “democratic development”. This is also in adherence to the
goals of the Local Agenda 21, which aims for a bottom-up planning.
However, when the talk is about participation, one has to be careful about the
real level of citizens’ involvement. In many cases the informing of citizens is
mixed up with participation. The most important question in connection with
participation is the “amount of power that is devoted to the citizen” (Pacione,
2005, p. 441). This level of empowerment is categorised by Arnstein (1969, in
Pacione, 2005) as seen in Figure 5-4.
8
Citizens control
7
Delegated power
6
Partnership
5
Placation
4
Consultation
3
Informing
2
Therapy
1
Manipulation
Degrees of
citizens power
Degrees of
tokenism
Non-participation
Figure 5-4: Arnstein´s ladder of citizen’s participation (in Pacione, 2005 p. 441)
The figure shows how many ways there are to pretend to involve people in
planning without giving them the real opportunity to implement their thoughts
in the decision process. Even though the thought of participation has a long
history some questions are still unrevealed: How much stake should the
“users” have in the planning process and do they know better than
professionals?
But the involvement of people in the planning process is important for
different reasons:
- Finding solutions which fit to the citizens needs
- Recognize and resolve of conflicts through cooperation and negotiation
- Leads to innovation
(according Balducci & Calvaresi, 2005)
We find that it is an important step towards sustainability if the planning and
design of urban development projects fully integrated the citizens or future
inhabitants into its process. It is unfortunate that many developers, planners
and architects are quite reluctant to involve the end-users of their products
How to plan sustainably at the local level – a qualitative assessment
78
who are the citizens. Yet these are the very people who will determine
whether the project is a success by their use of it. Ideally, widespread and
frequent public forums should be held for such projects to ensure that the
project maintains its connection with the reality of public and end-user
preferences. It is very important to get the public to understand the design
and layout of Thor’s Bakke if their contributions are to be meaningful. This was
used extensively in the project design for the Bridgecourt Apartments in
Oakland, California. Here the project design was developed within a
community forum which involved project neighbours, local planning
department etc (Catellus, 2008).
In case of a brownfield development, participation is especially important to
reach the maximum liveability of the site, because brownfields are not
unwritten piece of land but have a history for the people living in the area.
Brownfield redevelopment can either have a “galvanising effect on a
community or drive wedges of division and discontent through it. Community
involvement in every step of the way can make the difference” (Bartsch,
2003, p. 2).
5.3.2. Mixed type of ownership
Another proposal would be to establish a development partnership between
the municipality housing department and the developer. Such a partnership
would be feasible if the municipality owned at least 10% of the shares to
Thor’s Bakke. Through the partnership the project could become a mixedincome development where the municipality could own some of the
apartments and designate them as affordable housing for young middleincome families and students dispersed over the area. Such a mix of social
groups could help create and maintain a vibrant and resilient community in
Thor’s Bakke, hopefully it will also help avoid ghettoisation of the area. To
ensure the participation of potential residents in Thor’s Bakke there could also
be a Prospective Residents Association formed once the development stage is
about to begin.
5.4. ECONOMIC ISSUES
As mentioned in the conclusion of the analysis, sub section 4.5, there is
another element of the sustainability paradigm that has proven to be an
important factor in whether a development project is sustainable. The impacts
of economics aspect of sustainability are greater than we had realized. But
how can a development project be presented in a profitable way for the
investor or as the architect KL said, how can sustainability become a
fashionable trend, fashionable enough to be profitable?
First the public has to change its mind and participate in this transition
towards sustainability. Secondly, the developers have reflect more on the
lifecycle cost and not only take into consideration the investment costs of the
construction but the maintenance as well as the functioning cost during the
whole lifecycle of the building. This holistic view has a great impact on the
projects design, as it leads to the conclusion that solar panel systems, double
or triple glassed windows, for instance are investments which contribute to
How to plan sustainably at the local level – a qualitative assessment
79
the decease of consumption of fuel energy and at the same time make the
project profitable on the lifecycle scale. But in order to reach this holistic
approach the municipality has to set the ground rules through the
establishment of specific requirements related to the construction and the
layout of the site in terms of performance for instance (fuel energy
consumption under a certain threshold, CO2 emission, etc...). In that way it
sets some requirements (even at the building scale) that need to be fulfilled
when new areas are to be taken under development.
Low energy housing is linked with higher construction costs for the
constructors, who, as KL mentioned in the interview, do not regard low energy
housing as economically profitable. So the municipality could make this
requirement mandatory through policy or even take up the opportunity of
subsidizing low energy housing. Many cities have promoted that sustainability
should be implemented in the buildings, both on new sites and as well on
regeneration sites and even in old buildings. The following section will
describe to ways by two different cities, Freiburg in Germany and Vienna in
Austria.
5.4.1. Energy efficiency through policy
An example of how a city can use its established legal powers for effective
environmental management can be seen by the city of Freiburg, Germany. For
the city, low-energy housing is the norm in the building of new houses and the
low-energy housing should be built in areas where the city has jurisdiction.
The city launched a project that promoted energy-efficient housing
construction standards by incorporating it into all leases and purchases
contracts for city property. This approach was accepted by the public and has
been successful because the building contractors and the architects have
accepted the programme. In order for an efficient operation, the city had to
keep the people involved and well informed. Another element the city had to
overcome was the stereotyped view that low-energy construction involved
increase in financial burdens, the investment cost is high but in the long run it
is cheaper and most importantly it is eco-friendly. The cost associated with the
energy efficient construction in the beginning was added to the purchase price
and the cost concerning new local government buildings was of course paid by
the municipality (EAUE, 2008).
5.4.2. Energy efficiency through subsidize
Subsidization is a tool to promote ecologically beneficial projects in Vienna,
through housing constructions. The apartment building projects only qualify
for subsidies if they meet the stringent Low Energy Building efficiency
standards made by the city. The city provides subsidies for the improvement
of energy supply and thermal insulation in existing buildings, as well in
privately owned housing (City of Vienna, 1999). The amount of subsidy per
square meter relates to the energy standards of a low-energy house,
depending on the energy savings. The subsidy for a renovation cost cannot
exceed more than one third of the total cost and can be from 30 to 75 euro
per m2. In addition to that, grants for 20 euro per m2 are awarded from the
How to plan sustainably at the local level – a qualitative assessment
80
city especially for energy efficient renovation measures like heat pumps, solar
energy and others (Homlong & Springler, 2006).
These two ways described above are just two ways of many that the
municipality of Randers can take in order to promote sustainable development
on the building level. It is their task to set the goals and get the public as well
the developers involved. With for example subsidization, the municipality
takes their ambition towards sustainability to a higher level. By that they
emphasises that sustainability on a building level could not only be achieved
in new housing projects but also in older houses. Energy Efficient Building is
something that benefits all in the end, event tough it involves high
construction costs, as it is a sustainable urban development which acts in the
short-term towards achieving long-term goals.
5.5. ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
Environmental measurements are implemented in Thor’s Bakke but to a
limited extent. Some improvement can be made. The following proposals are
inspired by the politician’s vision of sustainability: ‘green’ city but by using the
concept of ‘green space’ described in the theory chapter, see sub section
3.6.4.1. It is suggested to re-structure the design of the ‘City Park’ in depth as
a green space and to implement a part of the concept of green space (i.e. the
environmental aspect) to improve the quality and the liveability of the area.
The environmental issues contribute greatly to the new ‘image’ of Thor’s
Bakke.
The following changes are suggested:
- Establishment of a pond for the treatment of rain water in situ and used it
to shape a new genuine ‘green space’.
- Strengthening the link between the forests in the North of Thor’s Bakke, the
new design of the green space and the Gudenå through Østervold.
- Establishment of green roofs
The wastewater treatment (through an oxidation pond for instance) was
studied but not implemented in Thor’s Bakke. For a community of 230
dwellings, the system needs at least two ponds to be effective (Indah Water
Konsortium, 2008), so it would occupy a large space in Thor’s Bakke.
Therefore the solution was not implemented in the ‘City Park’ design as the
space devoted to the green space is about 20 acres and the ‘City Park’ has to
satisfy both environmental and social requirements.
The overall goals of these proposals are firstly to decrease the impermeable
surfaces by re-establishing a better balance between the grey area (concrete
–buildings-, asphalt -pavement, roads) and green area. This general proposal
consists in re-establishing the hydrological processes that have been
damaged by the sealing that comes with the urbanization of the area. Rain
water is normally fed into the sewage drainage network, which saturates the
sewage treatment plant right after a rain shower and disturbs the normal
process of the water treatment. Consequently, a part of this polluted water is
discharged into rivers that swell in a short space of time, increasing the
occurrence of flooding. Moreover the increasing of impermeable area that
How to plan sustainably at the local level – a qualitative assessment
81
comes with the urbanization increases the debit of the rivers because the
rainwater does not have time to seep into the ground and flows directly and
quickly towards the rivers.
Secondly the environmental improvement of the area should contribute to the
urban air quality (photosynthese, evapotranspiration, filtration of the pollution,
etc...) or at least to a cooler micro-climate in Thor’s Bakke.
5.5.1. A pond within the green space
It is proposed to convert the green area into a genuine green space. In the
current project, the green area has some restrained environmental benefits
as well as quite poor social and aesthetic aspects. On the opposite a green
space has some more dimensions and goals. It is suggested to enlarge the
straightforward aesthetic aspect of the current green area to a multi
dimensional and multi functional green space by adding a functional
pond in the design of the green space.
The principle of the pond is to store temporarily and in situ the rain water
falling down. On the opposite, the pond re-establishes the local hydrological
process by allowing the rain water to seep naturally and slowly down in the
ground to fuel the groundwater. In addition, a natural rain water management
like a pond is a way to limit the cost linked with the sewage, the re-design of
the network and the construction of a new sewage treatment plant (GauzinMüller, 2001).
Besides its economical and hydrological qualities, the pond can also be widely
used to shape a new genuine green space by including in its design the water
dimension. The pond is therefore used as structuring element of the layout of
the green space. A wide range of vegetation species can be planted (trees,
bushes, plants, etc...), devoted to fulfil the recreational needs of citizens, and
facilitate the maintenance conditions (avoid the using of pesticides and so on).
The pond will make the ‘City Park’ less artificial and more natural than the
current design. The wide range of vegetation also offers a greater range of
wildlife habitats than before which tend to increase the biodiversity (fauna and
flora).
Moreover the pond can be seen as a sublime means to inform and increase
citizens’ awareness of the current water treatment issues. The pedestrians’
path could be designed as a way to explain and sensitize citizens of the
hydrological process.
The new green space could be located the same as already planned, with the
condition that the undergrounded part of the library would be reorganized. It
has to allow the layout of a genuine ‘City Park’ since it was highlighted that
the current location of the green area (on the roof of the library) could
strongly constrained the environmental and social functions of the green
space. In order to lay out the ‘City Park’, it is needed to have a total natural
ground, instead of the roof of the library. Therefore, instead of stretching two
underground storeys horizontally over a great part of the South Western part
of Thor’s Bakke, see Figure 4-11, the construction could go down vertically
under the main unit of the library in form of more underground storeys. The
cross-section below, Figure 5-5, clarifies the concept.
How to plan sustainably at the local level – a qualitative assessment
82
Figure 5-5: Proposal of the new layout of sub area 4 - green space and library (source:
UPM0703, 2008)
5.5.2. Strengthening of the link between
public spaces
The local plan intends to preserve the trees alignment in the northern part of
Thor’s Bakke that seems to echo back to the forest space to make better
physical and vegetal connexion between Thor’s Bakke and the forest. It is
suggested to take advantage of this green element by establishing a ‘green’
link (or a green corridor) between the different public spaces which are:
- the forest in the northern part of Thor’s Bakke
- the ‘City Park’ in the south west part of Thor’s Bakke
- Østervold, the largest public open space of Randers, in the South of Thor’s
Bakke
- Gudenå the longest stream in Denmark
Due to its central location among these public spaces, Thor’s Bakke is seen as
an opportunity to strengthen the link between these different areas. A system
of green and filtering trench network which intends to highlight these different
public spaces and to make them more structured at the city scale and obvious
for pedestrians mainly, see the visualization of proposals in figure XX.
Moreover these trenches are designed as an interconnected network allowing
the rainwater to filter into the groundwater or in case of very important rain
fall to flow down towards the pond. By making this new kind of rainwater
drainage network more visible, it also participates to give an uncommon
perception of the urban public space that contributes to create Thor’s Bakke
own ‘image’.
This kind of rainwater management has been already put into practise in a
European pilot project, in Vauban in the neighbourhood of Freiburg (Germany)
as Figure 5-6 portrays.
How to plan sustainably at the local level – a qualitative assessment
83
Figure 5-6: Green and filtering trench in the Vauban neighbourhood (source:
UPM0703, 2008)
According to the current project of Thor’s Bakke, the proposal consists in
placing the green trench on both sides of the four main roads, as shown in
Figure 5-7, and in the visualization of the proposals in Figure 5-9. The layout
can be further modified by an additional bushes line on each side that would
make this ‘green’ link multi-functional. It makes paths more pedestrian- than
car-oriented; it is remembered that Thor’s Bakke is seen as a pedestrian area
zone where the car access is strongly limited. It also balances the green area
with the grey area by making the nature more visible in the landscape of
Thor’s Bakke and decreases the impermeable surfaces previously highlighted.
Figure 5-7: Principle cross section of trench (source: UPM0703, 2008)
5.5.3. Green roof
The green roof cannot be considered as a green space as it has been defined
in this report, as it is located on private ground and through this it is not
accessible to the public. Nevertheless, a green roof has positive effects on
ecology as well as on liveability. The characteristics of a green roof can be
described as follows:
- Generation of a buffer surface aiming to limit the amount of rainwater
going to the sewage network.
How to plan sustainably at the local level – a qualitative assessment
84
- Contribution to the improvement of the air quality by vaporization of stored
water in the green roof and in the plants (hygrometry regulation, catching
the polluted dust, etc...)
- Contribution to the biodiversity (fauna, flora)
- Visual comfort and better integration of the building in the scenery
(Sources: Gauzin-Müller, 2001, p. 53; Association of green roof, 2008;
Soprema, 2008; Ecovegetal, 2008)
In more technical considerations, a green roof compared with a traditional flat
roof has some benefits in terms of thermal insulation, phonic insulation, shelf
life increased.
Some examples show that the greening of the roofs comes from a wish of the
citizens. In that way, the greening of the roof can be seen as an element in the
improvement of liveability in Thor’s Bakke. The housing development
“Sargfabrik” (coffin factory) in Vienna is an example of this. After a long
planning process the redevelopment of the closed coffin factory was started in
1996. The aim of the future inhabitants was to establish a new form of living
(together). They wanted to find a solution for the – for them – unsatisfying
situation on the housing market: the concentration on single family houses.
With the redevelopment of the coffin factory they achieved to establish a
piece of ‘urban utopia’. The 5000 m² big site accommodates cultural as well as
social facilities, which are not only accessible for the inhabitants but also for
the public. To be able to accommodate all the functions and still maintain the
liveability the roofs and terraces are greened. They are used for planting
vegetables but also for leisure as Figure 5-8 portrays.
Figure 5-8: Roof of the Sargfabrik, Vienna (source: Sargfabrik)
In summary of this chapter the previously described proposals will be now
visualised in the following map and additionally summarized in a table:
How to plan sustainably at the local level – a qualitative assessment
85
Table 5-2: Summary table of the proposals (source: UPM0703, 2008)
Action
Pros
Reduce parking
spaces
- Change
modes
Cons
of
- Reduction
costs
mobility
of
building
- Increase of time for
searching a parking
space
- Public resistance
- Reduction
of
environmental pollution
- More space for people
Low rise / high
density
- Preservation
of
the
traditional city structure
- More
free
space
between buildings
- Distinction
between
private and public- space
- No high-rise building
landmark
- Secure the achievement
of the acceptable density
New branding
- Best practise project
Vertical mixed
land use
- Creating
proximity
live
- Long
investment
and
- Different uses disturb
each
other
and
create anger!
- Planning according to the
needs of people
- Long
planning
process which might
get stuck
- Social diversity
Participation
term
- sensitizing
population
of
the
Public housing
- Increased social diversity
Subsidies for low
energy housing
- Faster implementation of
low energy housing on
the market
- Market
distortion
because
external
costs
of
environmental
pollution are still not
included
Establishment of a
pond, ‘green
links’, and the
green roof
- Structuring the landscape
- Change of the library
design
- Re-establishment
hydrological balance
of
- Maintenance costs
- Improvement of urban ait
quality
- Creating of an identity in
the area
How to plan sustainably at the local level – a qualitative assessment
86
Figure 5-9: Visualization of proposals (source: UPM0703, 2008, based on Arkitema map)
How to plan sustainably at the local level – a qualitative assessment
87
CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION
Our conclusion is drawn from the initial research question and objectives:
• Is a sustainable urban form achievable in the complex city?
-
How do we measure sustainability in the urban context?
-
To what extent is urban sustainability used in the local
planning of Randers?
The first important step towards assessing sustainability in the urban context
is the definition of the term. Throughout our research it revealed to us that
there is no agreement in the scientific world which elements define
sustainability. However we came to the conclusion that without a clear
definition no assessment of sustainability can be made. Theory has
highlighted to us that the definitions in the sustainable development paradigm
are the main problem. As a result this has led to serious difficulties in how
practitioners have viewed and used the elements. The different interviewees
had different interpretations of urban sustainability and consequently looked
at the elements of the sustainable urban form from different scales and levels.
This vagueness of the terms and concepts of sustainable urban development
has led to the term being popular in many quarters yet implementation is just
as vague and varied. Therefore those working within the field have been able
to adjust it to their own understandings.
Looking at the research questions from the perspective of our theoretical
framework, the analysis of our findings and from the proposals we reached
several conclusions. In this report sustainable urban form is defined through
several physical (low-energy housing, transport, compactness & density),
functional (mixed land use & diversity), perceptive (history, liveability &
uniqueness) and environmental (green spaces & recycling) elements. Through
the integration of these elements in urban planning the sustainable urban
form can be achieved in the complex city. Of these elements we focused
especially on four, one from each subgroup which was the most relevant for
the sustainability of the urban form. The four chosen elements were density,
mixed land-use, green spaces and liveability. We assigned our own working
definitions to these four measurements as shown in Chapter 3. Sustainability
in the urban context can be measured by examining the qualitative level of
use of the four particular elements.
We hitherto premised that the ideal density of a place should be acceptable or
qualified density in relation to the surroundings. According to our findings the
density of Thor’s Bakke cannot be called an acceptable density nor can it be
qualified. This can be the result of the negative way in which higher density is
perceived by the planners, architect and maybe even the investors. Higher
density has a negative connotation to it because it is seen as being
synonymous with overcrowding. The areas surrounding Thor’s Bakke have a
higher density suggesting that Thor’s Bakke could have been the same.
However, we did not increase the overall density of Thor’s Bakke in our
How to plan sustainably at the local level – a qualitative assessment
89
proposals (taking into regard that it is viewed negatively by the stakeholders
when increased), but rather suggested a structural change that could fit more
with the surrounding urban fabric.
Mixed land use has been defined as a high diversity of functions within a
specific area of which the uses are not only horizontally-grained but also
vertically-grained i.e. within buildings. The mixed land use in Thor’s Bakke is
acceptable according to the theory and our findings. We conclude this
because the site has many functions integrated such as library, retail shops,
health centre, accommodation, etc. However the land use is mixed
horizontally, but as suggested in the proposals, the uses could also be
integrated vertically as that would increase diversity and vibrancy of the
whole site and the individual buildings.
In the previous chapters, we had premised that ‘green spaces’ should be
multi-dimensional and multi-functional. We came to the conclusion that the
implementation of green spaces in Thor’s Bakke was inadequate as it
complied with the notion of ‘green areas’ but not with our conceptualization of
‘green spaces’. The ‘green’ in Thor’s Bakke does not fulfil the eco-diversity
dimension of green spaces. However the proposed changes to the green
space element in Thor’s Bakke were such that the green space took on a
hydrological function e.g. the pond and trenches. The amount of green spaces
was increased through the greening of the roofs. We also conclude that the
probable original main function of the envisioned green spaces was for selling
the project but not for ecological reasons as stressed in theory.
On the element of liveability we had hitherto defined it as an element that
relies greatly on public participation. Therefore it is difficult to give a concrete
conclusion on its integration in Thor’s Bakke as it is yet to be built and used.
However we conclude that in light of the level of public participation in Thor’s
Bakke project, the site will be liveable if the comments and viewpoints of the
citizens will be considered. Also, the liveability of Thor’s Bakke will really be
determined by the combination and level of integration of the three other
elements.
When analysing the four chosen elements we conclude that, Thor’s Bakke
contributes to a sustainable urban form but only up to a certain point. This is
because there is another factor that is more decisive, the economic feasibility
of the project. Since Thor’s Bakke is an important private project, the
municipality has limited say in the extent to which the finer details of the
elements of a sustainable urban form are integrated into development
projects like Thor’s Bakke e.g. low energy housing, paved surface areas etc.
We discovered that by choosing not to take the economic aspect into account
at the beginning of our project we lost a very valuable viewpoint on urban
‘sustainability’. By failing to interview the developer we unwittingly and
unfortunately excluded one of the most important and decisive factors in the
level to which ‘sustainability’ is implemented in a development project. This
however provides stimulus for a new line of research into how developers view
‘sustainability’, how far they are willing to implement measurements of
‘sustainability’ in development projects and for what reasons. Essentially it
would be an enquiry into what is ‘sustainability’ in the economic point of view.
This could prove to be an exciting and thoroughly enlightening pursuit.
How to plan sustainably at the local level – a qualitative assessment
90
Triangulation of our methods showed that the main obstacle for the
achievement of the sustainable urban form is the lack of mandatory and
comprehensive ‘sustainability’ checklist that the municipality uses and
enforces for urban development projects. Before doing so, the municipality
has to have their own working definition of sustainable urban development, its
elements and ways to achieve it. By this, the municipality is able to implement
elements of ‘sustainability’ in future urban development projects.
This report has shown that even though ‘sustainability’ as a term has been
around for 20 years, the actors in the urban planning process are not working
with the same elements in order to ensure resilient urban spaces. Sustainable
development is still a case of the Elephant and the Nine Blind men, different
actors define it differently. It is therefore necessary to have well defined goals
related to sustainable urban development so that the actors in the planning
process are using the same measurements in order to evaluate whether
sustainability is achieved. Sustainable development is not a static goal but a
constantly changing process which also must be taken into account when
deciding, on a national and local level, what sustainability really is.
All in all this report has been a worthwhile learning experience and it has
served its purpose well in that we are much the wiser at its completion as well
as all the more inquisitive. This project has opened to us a world of possibly
exciting research areas that we had not hitherto considered; and for that we
are quite pleased.
How to plan sustainably at the local level – a qualitative assessment
91
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