1. law, govt and politics
2. armed forces
3. army

2007 2,3,8,12 VALUE QUESTIONS
 2006 2,2,5,6,10 VALUE QUESTIONS
 Extended response question must include
consideration of change over time and non-spartan
sources of evidence. It is that judgment of difference
that perpetuated the Spartan myth of a barracks
culture and institutionalized values to produce the
spartan fighting machine
 SOURCES; XENOPHON,
PLUTARCH,ARISTOTLE,TYRTAEUS,ALCMAN
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1
The geographical setting
the geographical setting, natural features and resources of ancient Sparta
significant sites: Sparta
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government: ephorate, gerousia, ekklesia 2001 (10)
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2
Social structure and political organisation 2005 (10)
the issue of Lycurgus (the Great Rhetra)
roles and privileges of the two kings 2006 2004 2002
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social structure: Spartiates, perioeci, ‘inferiors’, helots *
role of the Spartan army 2007 ( 10)
control of the helots: the military, syssitia, krypteia 2007 2005 2002
artisans, helots
educational system: agoge 2006 2004 ( 10) 2001
role and status of women: land ownership, inheritance, education 2006 (10)
3
The economy 2003
land ownership: agriculture, kleroi, helots 2004
technology: weapons, armour, pottery
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economic roles of the periokoi (‘dwellers around’) and helots 2002 2001
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economic exchange: use of iron bars, trade
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4
Religion, death and burial 2003 ( 10)
gods and goddesses: Artemis Orthia, Poseidon, Apollo
myths and legends: Lycurgus and the Dioscuri
festivals: Hyakinthia, Gymnopaedia, Karneia 2007
religious role of the kings
funerary customs and rituals
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5
Cultural life 2005
art: sculpture, painted vases, bone and ivory carving
architecture: Amyklaion, Menelaion, the Sanctuary of Artemis Orthia
writing and literature: Alcman and Tyrtaeus
Greek writers’ views of Sparta: Herodotus, Thucydides, Xenophon, Aristotle, Pausanias, Plutarch
6
Everyday life
daily life and leisure activities 2003
food and clothing
( always 2 mark questions)
There is a decision
by the Examination
committee to limit
teachers
predictions about
questions. We
cannot assume just
because it was a
question on last
years paper that it
won’t be on again
THE BASTARDS!!!!!!
Setting
Features
Resources
Sites
•Southern part of
Peloponnese
•Area known as
Laconia(
amalgamation of 5
villages) peninsula
•Eurotas Valley
•42 km to port of
Gytheon
•Fertile soil
•Climate suited to
farming, warm
growing seasons
and rainfall
•River Eurotas
•Mt Taygetus and
Parnon acted as
natural barriers
•Main mineral
resource was iron ore,
lead ,clay and marble
•Crops grown; Wheat
barley, grapes, olives
and figs
•Cattle, sheep, goats,
pigs grown for meat,
cloth, leather
•Honey, wax and wild
game
•Spartan Acropolis
•Temple of Athena of
the Bronze house
•Temple of Artemis
Orthia
•, Shrine of Apollo
and
•the Menelaion
•See power point
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“One-against-one, they [sc. the Spartans] are as good as
anyone in the world. But when they fight in a body, they
are the best of all. For though they are free men, they are
not entirely free. They accept Law as their master. And
they respect this master more than your subjects respect
you. Whatever he commands, they do. And his command
never changes: It forbids them to flee in battle, whatever
the number of their foes. He requires them to stand firm - to conquer or die”.
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MYTH Andrews; “the perpetuation of his name was one of the most
successful frauds in history.”
Cartledge states that;” According to Spartan myth, the laws attributed
sometimes to the human or part –human lawgiver Lycurgus had also
received the divine sanction of Apollo
Tyrtaeus makes no mention of him in his poetry of the 7th century and
claims that the Constitution came from Apollo
Most ancient historians place him between the 9th and 7th century,
undermining the credibility of his existence
REFORMER Xenophon’s biography
Aristotle claims to have seen an inscription from Olympia, dating him to
776BC
Plutarch, although admits that there is nothing certain then dismisses the
uncertainty and proclaims him the son of Prytanis and brother of Eunomis
Herodotus makes him the son of Agis 1 and guardian of Chariliaus
Nillson;” The methodical and purposeful way in which everything has
been made to lead towards the single goal, forces us to see here the
intervention of a consciously shaping hand
MORE THAN 1 Plutarch tells us that Timaeus claims that there were two
Lycurgus’. The elder existing at the time of Homer while the younger one
was considerably later
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A rhetra is something that is spoken.
"So eager was Lycurgus for the establishment of this
form of government, that he obtained an oracle from
Delphi about it, which they call a 'rhetra'.“
decreed that Lycurgus should establish a sanctuary to
"Zeus and Athena", divide the people into " tribes and
obai", and appoint a Gerousia which comprised "30 men
including the Kings".
It is thought that the Rider was a later document
introduced possibly by Theopompus allowing the
Gerousia to withdraw legislation if the people spoke
crookedly
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Sources of evidence; Tyrtaeus, Eunomia , Polybius and Xenophon
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Know thoroughly the roles and responsibilities of Kings,
Gerousia, Ephors and Assembly
You must make mention that the political organization changed over time,
and that the perfect equilibrium that Polybius speaks of was generally an
illusion. WHY? Introduction of Ephorate suggests flaws and Jones’
Andrews and Cartledge support notion of greater power by certain kings eg
Agesilaus
 “each power being checked by the others, no one part should turn the
scale or decisively out-balance the others; but that, by being accurately
adjusted and in exact equilibrium, the whole might remain long steady like
a ship sailing close to the wind” Polybius
 Tyrtaeus’ poem Eunomia mentions “Kings, first in Heaven’s debate”, which
suggests the powerful place of Kings in the 7th century. Ephors added later
 “Aristotle calls the Spartan kings a perpetual hereditary generalship, but in
the hands of an able king it could be and normally was , far more.” A H
Jones
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Military. Commander of the Army, first in advance, last in
retreat On campaign made decisions of peace and war- one
stays at home
Religious. Chief priests of Zeus; perform sacrifices
 Political; As members of the Gerousia, could draft
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legislation
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Societal; betrothal of heiresses and adoption of orphans and
maintenance of roads
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“In war a hundred picked men shall be their guard
upon expeditions and they shall take as many cattle
as they desire and take the backs and hides of all
that are sacrificed.
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In peace it is the privilege of kings to sit down to feast
before others and be served a double portion, which
could be given to other guests, and the first pouring
of libations and the hides of animals slain in sacrifice.
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At the public charge a full grown victim in the Temple
of Apollo will be delivered and a measure of barleygroats and a Spartan quarter of wine,
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At the games they shall have seats of honour
specially set apart”
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“Another defect in the Lacedaemonian constitution is seen in connection with the
office of ephor. The ephorate independently controls much important business. Its
five members are chosen from among all the people, with the result that very often
men who are not at all well-off find themselves holding this office, and their lack
of means makes them open to bribery. . . . And just because the power of the
ephors is excessive and dictatorial, even the Spartan kings have been forced to
curry favor with them. And this has caused further damage to the constitution;
what was supposed to be an aristocracy has become more like a democracy. In
itself the ephorate is not a bad thing; it certainly keeps the constitution together;
the people like it because it gives them a share in an office of power. So whether
this is due to the lawgiver Lycurgus or to good fortune, it suits the circumstances
very well. . . . But while it was necessary to select ephors from among all the
citizens, the present method of selection strikes me as childish. The ephors have
powers of jurisdiction also, and decide cases of importance; but considering that
anybody at all may hold the office, it would be better that they should not have
power to give verdicts on their own, but only to decide in accordance with stated
rules and regulations. Nor does the way in which ephors live conform to the aims
of the constitution. They live a life of ease, while the rest have a very high standard
of strictness in living, so high indeed that they really cannot live up to it but
secretly get round the law and enjoy the more sensual pleasures.”
Eunomia stood for good order and harmony
in not only politics but society as well
 Tyrtaeus’ poem Eunomia mentions “Kings,
first in Heaven’s debate”, which suggests the
powerful place of Kings in the 7th century.
Ephors added later
 “Aristotle calls the Spartan kings a perpetual
hereditary generalship, but in the hands of
an able king it could be and normally was ,
far more.” A H Jones
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“The organization in the classical period of Spartan Society can
be summarized under three headings; First a political system in
which power and decision making were divided among the
Kings, ephors, Elders and Assembly
 Secondly, a military and economic system according to which
full citizenship was extended to a body of several thousand men
who became full time hoplites supported by produce delivered
by the helots who worked their lands
 Thirdly a social and ritual system as part of which every citizen
was compelled, especially during upbringing to accept a
common public way of life”
Stephen Hodkinson
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To belong to the Spartiate class the main criteria
was ownership of a plot of public land (kleros),
membership in a military mess, sharing of common
meals (syssitia) and
completion of education and military training
requirements (agoge). This group formed military
elite in Spartan society. They were a highly trained
warrior class, holding all political power.
there is some historical controversy concerning an inner
nobility based either on wealth, prestige or valour.
The existence of debt and possible loss of land and
citizenship suggests that not every one was equal
Inferiors – reasons of inferior statue is as
follows
Partheniai -Illegitimate offspring of
helot mothers and Spartiate fathers
Neodamodes - Helots – who for
courageous acts or service to the
state
Tresantes - Spartan cowards lost
citizenship (not necessarily
permanent)
Mothoces - Sons of Helots often
adopted as playmates of Spartan
boys
INSTRUMENTS OF CONTROL
Krypteia
Military
Used as light armed skirmishers and were
offered the chance of freedom if acted
bravely ( supposedly)
18-20 Year olds, selected as secret police
, who wandered the countryside, killing
the strongest of helots
Control of Helots
“ It is hard to avoid the conclusion that the
Spartans did…genuinely fear helot revolt-and
with reason, in the light of the actual revolt of the
mid 460’s Cartledge
Syssition
Plutarch’s Moralia
“They used to make the helots drunk and exhibit
them to the young as a deterrent from excessive
drinking.”
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“ …their whole education was aimed at developing smart
obedience, perseverance under stress and victory in battle.”
Plutarch
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According to Plutarch the aim of the Spartan education system was to
produce
› Prompt obedience to authority
› The ability to endure pain and hardship
› Courage and victory in battle
“ an endless series of official measures illustrating another
general feature of Spartan organization, namely the
concerted effort to minimize the importance of family
life….and to emphasize rather the cardinal and overriding
significance of communal ties.”
Paul Cartledge
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Kendall rejects past assessments of the Agoge and suggests
that the Lycurgan reform was merely the institutionilized
religious festivals where whipping ordeals and competitions
were designed to inspire warrior traits. He claims that no
archaeological evidence exists outside the religious
association.
He attributes the more traditional Agoge features to the reign
of Cleomenes 111. The suggestion is that it is the Roman
Agoge which adhered more to the Plutarch style of education
Stage 6 24-30
Eligible for full time military service, lived at home with family, grew hair long, forced to marry, voted in Assembly
Stage 5 20-24
Full time front line soldier. If married still lived in barracks and ate in syssition groups
Stage 4 18-20
Combatant but not front line soldier. Could marry if he wished
Stage 3 12 – 18 years old
Emphasis on military skills and obedience. At 19 chosen as Eiren class to tutor younger boys
Stage 2 7-12 years
Emphasis on developing physical strength. Placed in platoon groups and trained by a Paidonomous
Stage 1 Before the age of 6
Lived under the care and supervision of mother.
Military
Operating through the Peloponnesian League the
Spartan Army was responsible for the defence of Sparta
and her allies from any external threat whether it be
Greek or Persian eg Persian Wars ( Thermopylae and
Plataea)
 Conquerors of Messenia
 Civic
 All warriors were citizens who made decisions about war
and peace as members of the Assembly
 Domestic
-suppression of helots
 Economic
Consumers of goods produced by periokoi and helots
 Ideological
Transmitters of military values ie heroism, unity, loyalty,
obedience, sacrifice
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Although Plutarch, Xenophon and Aristotle’s image of
Spartan women were part of the general ” mirage”, it is
significant that in no sources do Spartan women ever appear
as passive, an unusual achievement in a predominantly male
Greek world. Their importance to their society centred on
their biological, economic, religious and socializing capacity
We have already encountered three facts which
may have caused Spartan women to be more
assertive outside the home than those of other
cities; their financial position, their outdoor training
and the absence abroad of many men in the
period of Sparta’s Empire.”
Anton Powell
Life within Sparta
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Biological
The aim of the State Spartan System of Education was to produce worthy mothers who
would bear strong warriors
Women underwent the servitude of maternity as did men the servitude of war” Simone De
Beauvoir
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Economic
Much of the management of an estate and the everyday household economy rested with
women
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In the absence of a male descendent, such a woman could be the means by which
her father’s lineage was perpetuated. She might also transmit her father’s property
to her son, or inherit it herself
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Social; Enforcement of military values
“ When a woman was burying her son, a worthless old crone came up to her and said, “you
poor woman , what a misfortune”. No by the two gods, a piece of good fortune because I
bore him so that he might die for Sparta, and that is what has happened as I wished.”
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Religious; Pausanius describes the role of the priestess holding the image of Artemis Orthia
during the whipping ordeal
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Traditional interpretation supported by Plutarch says that each citizen given an
indivisible plot at birth which reverted to the state at death.
9,000 lots to Spartiates, 30,000 to Perioikoi.Enough land to produce a return
of 70 medimnoi of barley for a man and 12 for his wife and a proportionate
amount of liquid produce
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Confusion; Others say that it could be passed down to eldest son. Herodotus
suggests that a landowner could control disposition by adopting a son or
through a daughters dowry. Aristotle says that nearly 2/5 of the land was
owned by women
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Resolution and current scholarship by Hodkinson
Two types of land; the ancient portion and land of a more private nature. A
landowner was prohibited from selling the ancient portion.
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Lycurgan reform restricted currency to the
use of iron bars. This restricted the hoarding
of money and also limited the opportunity
to buy imported goods since the currency
was not acceptable outside Sparta
 Evidence of war booty, obtained by kings,
existence of bribery and debt suggested
increased wealth
 Perioikoi were allowed to trade in gold and
silver
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“ like asses worn out by their mighty burdens; under painful
necessity to bring their masters full half the fruit their ploughed land
produced ”
Tyrtaeus fragment 6
Agricultural
Workers
attached to the
kleros
Military
When necessary
as was in the
Persian Wars,
helots were used
as light armed
skirmishers
Sons of helots
adopted as
playmates called
mothaces
Roles
of
Helots
Domestic duties
including child
rearing
Provided
produce to
syssition
Underpinned
citizenship of
Spartiate
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Spartan foreign policy was always greatly
affected either directly or indirectly by the
helots. Since a helot revolt threatened the
very existance of the Spartan state, its
supression dominated Spartan thinking
almost to the virtual exclusion of all other
issues.”
 Terry Buckley; Aspects of Greek History
Satellite
villages acted
as defence
buffer in case
of invasion
Craftsmen of
Pottery
Lakonian cups
popular
Served as
heavy infantry
in battle if
numbers
required eg
Plataea
Roles of
Perioikoi
Manufacturers
of furniture,
houses, cloth ,
weapons and
armour
Miners and
metalworkers
Bronzes
Fishermen
And
shipbuilders
who lived at
port of
Gythion
Merchants
and traders
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Xenophon cited in Plutarch says “...a king, by virtue of
his divine descent, should perform all the public sacrifices on the
city’s behalf and should lead the army wherever the city
despatches it.”
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Kings were high priests and performed sacrifices
at major festivals . As well on the way to war
sacrifice would be made 3 times. When?
They were also responsible for divination which
could be particularly useful if disinclined to engage
in battle.
“The power of prophecy, the sanctity of sanctuaries and festivals,
the threat of divine punishment are all distinctive features of the
Spartan religion. Mary Douglas has argued that the forms of social
discipline in a society and its conceptions of divine power are
related phenomena. The more an individual feels subject to a set of
rules that he must obey without question, the more he is to
understand religion too as a matter of fixed and formal observance.
 The gods were at the top of the chain of command that ran down
through Spartan society. Thus there was a constant need to seek
instruction through divination supervised by the humans just below
them in the chain of command.
 Spartan religion was Spartan more on its insistence on orderliness
and obedience than in any particular military emphasis it may have
had.” Robert Parker
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In both answers knowledge of the Karneia, Hyakinthia,
Gymnopaedia and Cult of Artemis Orthia is needed. Cults of
Menelaus and Castor and Pollux could also be mentioned
Support of archaeological evidence is essential
Role &
Importance
• Ensures fertility, both
human and
agricultural
• Ensures victory in war
• Reinforces social
stratification
• Reinforces military
values
• Provides a sense of
control over their lives
Characteristics of
• Competition
• Obedience
• Periods of mourning
and celebration
• Blood Sacrifice
• Ritual offerings
• Processional
• Oracular predictions
• Divination
• Hero Worship
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The Karneia was a harvest festival, celebrated for nine days in August. It
celebrated the foundation of Sparta and various military events. In the
celebration some citizens carried model rafts to symbolise the coming of
the Dorians. Another event was the foot-race in which a young man
was chased by other unmarried men to determine an omen for the
state. Modern scholars have interpreted the Karneia as a reflection of
military training, emphasising heroic exploits.
The Gymnopaedia was a festival held in the Spartan agora to
commemorate the battle of Thyrea, fought against Argos in 550BC. It
featured Choral performances. It has been interpreted as a rite of
passage for Spartan boys.
The Hyakinthia was held at the ancient shrine of Amyclae, at a huge
statue of Apollo. The festival revolved around mourning for Hyakinthos
and praising Apollo. The first stage involved rites of sorrow and
mourning, with a ban placed on joyful songs. The second part involved
rejoicing in honour of Apollo, with choral song and dance. The festival
has been interpreted as a festival for the dead combined with
thanksgiving for life.
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Ordinary Spartans had simple funerals. The only groups allowed inscribed graves were
men who died in battle and women, in childbirth. According to Plutarch
Lykourgos allowed mortuary temples within the city walls so that people would
not fear death.
main features of funerary customs:
-death was accepted (helped in battle)
-grave goods/offerings were not placed in a grave
-soldiers were buried wrapped in their red cloaks with olive leaves placed
around
-burials appeared to be in simple pit or tile graves
-Warriors could be buried on the battlefield with grave markers ‘in war’
placed to identify the body. Women received names on their grave markers ‘in
childbirth’ if they died during childbirth or held religious office
-funerary rituals were conducted by female relatives and included:
-laying out the body
-a funeral procession
-a burial
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HERODOTUS‘…and after they are dead horsemen go round and announce
that which has happened throughout the whole of the Spartan land, and in
the city women go about and strike upon a copper kettle. Whenever this
happens so, two free persons of each household must go into mourning, a man
and a woman, and for those who fail to do this great penalties are
prescribed.... a certain number of the perioiki are compelled to go to the
funeral ceremony: and when there have been gathered together of these and of
the helots and of the Spartans themselves many thousands in the same place,
with their women intermingled, they beat their foreheads with a good will
and make lamentation without stint, saying that this one who had died last
of their kings has been killed in war, they prepare an image to represent him,
laid upon a couch with fair coverings, and carry it out to be buried. Then
after they have buried him, no assembly is held among them for ten days, nor
is there any meeting for choice of magistrates, but they have mourning during
these days.”
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Spartan culture and its associated value system
was expressed through art and architecture,
religious beliefs, music and poetry, mythology
and legends, and warrior attitudes.
Spartan history was written by men about
events rather than culture, so what is known to
modern society is mostly speculative and
interpretive.
Over time, Sparta changed from developing a
high culture in keeping with the rest of Greece,
to a restrictive militaristic culture based on
Lycurgus’ reforms.
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This topic must draw heavily from archaeological sources
Make statement that in the Archaic period Sparta developed along similar lines as the rest of the city states.
At some point in the second half of the 7th century the poet Tyrtaeus composed several
poems exhorting Spartans to service (among them, fr. 10, 11, 12 West), and from the late 7th
century until at least the 4th century Tyrtaeus’ poetry was sung actively on the march (Lyc.
Leoc. 107). Simmone des Bouvrie emphasizes that new cultural creations can quickly
become traditions when society is being rapidly transformed and a need is felt for the
establishment of cohesion, the legitimization of institutions, and socialization (Myth and
Symbol I, 22-27). Despite its origins in the 7th century, Tyrtaeus’ poetry quickly became
traditional literature, functioning much as any piece of folk literature might function.
Music and poetry by Alcman, and Tyrtaeus continued through the 5th and 4th century because it reinforced and
transmitted martial or religious values needed by the society
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I am your servant, Artemis.
You draw your long bow at night,
clothed in the skins of wild beasts.
Now hear our beautiful singing.
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Either through Lycurgan reforms or loss of trading markets ( competition from Corinth), luxury atrophied. What
remains in circulation comes largely from 6th century and relates to religious offerings
Art; Kothon or drinking cups were highly prized according to CRITIAS.
At least 9 sculptors were known
Spartan bronze products were of such high quality that they were viewed as valuable diplomatic gifts
Spartan bronzes generally depicted women, hoplites or particular heroes such as Leonidas
Ivory disappears after 6th century and replaced by bone. Mostly combs and broaches found at Artemis ORTHIA
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Architecture; Remains of Temples
Two inscribed bronze artefacts were excavated at the Menelaion sanctuary
near Sparta. The first was a sacrificial meat hook dedicated ‘to Helen’ the
second was an Aryballos dated c650BC and inscribed, ‘to Helen, wife of
Menelaus.’ This attests to the fact that the alphabet reached Sparta.
“Scholarly work on written and epigraphical evidence suggests that kings,
commanders, Ephors, member of the Gerousia and envoys were all
literate” –Cartledge
they learned to read and write for purely practical reasons…All their
education was directed towards…obedience…endurance…and victory.’
(Plutarch
.” To call it a mere barracks bereft of high culture, as did certain Athenian
propagandists, was probably going to far- but not all that much too far.”
Paul Cartledge
“Spartan values, both the good and the bad, produced a remarkable spirit
of self-sacrifice for a larger cause”
CARTLEDGE
Historian
View of Sparta
Herodotus
480-425BC
Recording great deeds ( narrative of Persian Wars) not society, but unusually
does include reference to Spartan woman , Gorgo. Admires Spartan bravery
Thucydides
460-400BC
An Athenian general, wrote History of the Peloponnesian Wars. Comments that
buildings no indication of well deserved reputation
Xenophon
428-354BC
Exiled Greek, lived in Sparta, openly biased towards way of life. Only
contemporary 5th century eye witness
Aristotle
384-322BC
Focused on the Spartan Constitution. Negative view, some aspects childish.
Blamed women’s ownership of land for downfall. Best at war, not in peace
Polybius
202-120BC
Compares the Spartan system of government with other Greek states and finds
it superior because the checks and balances create equilibrium
Plutarch
46-120AD
Biographer, wrote about vice or virtue. Lycurgus ,the latter. Admits that
nothing is certain. Admires everything except the Krypteia
Pausanius
A travel writer, visited Laconia in 2nd century describes building, temples eg
Agora and Temple of Apollo
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EVERYDAY LIFE
Daily life
-different social classes would have led very different daily lives
-helots lives centred around agriculture and labour  including their children
-perioikoi children were better off but still worked
-helot and perioikoi girls would have engaged in domestic duties
-Spartan boys lives centred on agoge activities
-Spartan men’s lives were dominated by military training and training of the boys if not
engaged in war
-Spartiate women were occupied by domestic duties, managing their estates, training
and preparing/participating in festivals
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Leisure Activities
-hunting  ‘Lycurgus…established a similar system of sharing hunting dogs; those who
need the dogs invite the owner to join the hunt and if he has not the time himself he lens
the pack with pleasure.’ (Xenophon)
Food and Clothing
-banqueting  often associated with religious festivals ‘…to improve the complexion,
physique and strength of hard workers.’ (Xenophon)
-horse racing, chariot racing
Kyniska bred and raced champion teams
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Marriage Customs
-unusual
-according to Plutarch girls were married when ‘they were ripe for it.’ –
that is when they were physically mature
-were expected to marry within their own social class
-dowries were customary and significant
-marriage by capture  man would choose a bride and carry her off 
probably just a symbolic act
-A.J Ball suggests that Spartan mothers had some say in whom their
daughter’s married
-According to Plutarch the brides head was shaved by the ‘bridesmaid’
 implied chastity and eased the male into intercourse with a female
rather than a male (homosexuality encouraged BW soldiers – fighting
with lover’s = more rage and more anger)
-ceremony was kept a secret until a child was born
-if the wife was barren then a new marriage contract could be
arranged
Minimum 4 booklet pages ( HSC booklet)
APPROX 500 WORDS
Must include;
Bias of non spartan writers
Change over time
Spartan mirage
Archaeological evidence
If you are aiming at Band 6 do not repeat
the myth.
 CHALLENGE IT!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
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Everybody equal???
 Why debt and disenfranchisement?
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Constitution in perfect equilibrium?
 Why the need for 1 king to stay at home. Why the need for later
addition of ephors? Why ephors renowned for bribery?
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All soldiers brave?
 Presence of tresantes???
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Unbeatable fighting machine?
 Loss to Argos, Thermopylae, Leuctra
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